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1.
 I˙stanbul, the capital of the east Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires embraces two continents, one arm reaching out to Asia, the other to Europe. It is therefore, a rich city in terms of monuments and historical cites. Shell limestones of Upper Miocene age are used as building stone in the majority of the monuments in I˙stanbul because of their attractiveness, availability and workability. The durability characteristics of the limestones are examined, and those factors that are responsible for atmospheric weathering are discussed, in a humid and marine environment with important problems of urban pollution, specifically due to traffic. In the present study weathering of the building stones were first examined in situ by macroscopic observations. The weathering that developed as a result of environmental effects since this limestone was first used in historical monuments has been affected 0.1–1.5 cm deep from the surface. The weathered facing stone of Şehzade Mehmed Mosque in I˙stanbul is undergoing a program of progressive replacement. During this study, samples were taken from this monument where the shell limestone was used. The stone surface was principally examined by means of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Petrographical and mineralogical analyses were made by using optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction method. The physico-chemical properties of these rocks control their weathering behaviour and reactivity. Major and trace element analyses and the effect of deterioration on the physical properties of the limestones (unit weight, porosity and water absorption) have also been investigated. Studies on the samples implies that weathering on the stone surface caused important variations on the physical characteristics of the rock. Received: 11 February 1998 · Accepted: 18 August 1998  相似文献   

2.
In the Port Edward area of southern Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, charnockitic aureoles up to 10 m in width in the normally garnetiferous Nicholson's Point Granite, are developed adjacent to intrusive contacts with the Port Edward Enderbite and anhydrous pegmatitic veins. Mineralogical differences between the country rock and charnockitic aureole suggest that the dehydration reaction Bt + Qtz → Opx + Kfs + H2O and the reaction of Grt + Qtz → Opx + Pl were responsible for the charnockitization. The compositions of fluid inclusions show systematic variation with: (1) the Port Edward Enderbite being dominated by CO2 and N2 fluid inclusions; (2) the non-charnockitized granite by saline aqueous inclusions with 18–23 EqWt% NaCl; (3) the charnockitic aureoles by low-salinity and pure water inclusions (<7 EqWt% NaCl); (4) the pegmatites by aqueous inclusions of various salinity with minor CO2. As a result of the thermal event the homogenization temperatures of the inclusions in charnockite show a much larger range (up to 390 °C) compared to the fluid inclusions in granite (mostly <250 °C). Contrary to fluid-controlled charnockitization (brines, CO2) which may have taken place along shear zones away from the intrusive body, the present “proximal” charnockitized granite formed directly at the contact with enderbite. The inclusions indicate contact metamorphism induced by the intrusion of “dry” enderbitic magma into “wet” granite resulting in local dehydration. This was confirmed by cathodoluminescence microscopy showing textures indicative for the local reduction of structural water in the charnockite quartz. Two-pyroxene thermometry on the Port Edward Enderbite suggests intrusion at temperatures of ∼1000–1050 °C into country rock with temperature of <700 °C. The temperature of aureole formation must have been between ∼700 °C (breakdown of pyrite to form pyrrhotite) and ∼1000 °C. Charnockitization was probably controlled largely by heat related to anhydrous intrusions causing dehydration reactions and resulting in the release and subsequent trapping of dehydration fluids. The salinity of the metamorphic fluid in the contact zones is supposed to have been higher at an early stage of contact metamorphism, but it has lost its salt content by K-metasomatic reactions and/or the preferential migration of the saline fluids out of the contact zones towards the enderbite. The low water activity inhibited the localized melting of the granite. Mineral thermobarometry suggests that after charnockite aureole genesis, an isobaric cooling path was followed during which reequilibration of most of the aqueous inclusions occurred. Received: 8 November 1998 / Accepted: 21 June 1999  相似文献   

3.
An archaeometric study of the stone materials employed in the Late Baroque historical monuments of the ancient city centre of Catania was carried out. Lithological maps of a selection of monuments, transferred to a digital format, revealed that the stone materials are both magmatic and sedimentary rocks, the colours of which are matched in a peculiar type of bichromy. Particular attention focused on sedimentary rocks, which consist of various types of limestone quarried near the city of Syracuse (Hyblean Plateau, south-eastern Sicily). Carbonate rocks were characterised in terms of mineralogy, petrography and geochemistry, by studying rock samples from both monuments and historical extraction sites. Results showed that, although only one name was historically attributed to the above lithotypes (i.e. “Pietra di Siracusa‘’), they were quarried from many locations and, as they belong to various geological formations, they therefore exhibit great variety. In order to examine the durability of Hyblean limestones employed in works of cultural heritage interest, salt crystallisation tests were carried out according to standard procedure norms (UNI EN 12370 (1999) Determination of resistance to crystallisation of salts, 6p). Results are consistent with the forms of deterioration observed in the monuments, and highlight the close relationship between textural characteristics and damage. Our purpose is to provide a basic tool, which may be useful both for conserving monuments of cultural heritage and for their restoration.  相似文献   

4.
Salt crystallisation is a major problem of deterioration in historic stone buildings, monuments and sculptures. The capillary rise of soil water is one of the primary sources of salts in stone structures, which evaporates leaving the salts behind. It has been noted that the spatial distribution profile of different species of salts crystallised in historic stone buildings is not homogeneous, i.e. different salts crystallise at different locations. The capillary transport and inhomogeneous spatial distribution of different salts in the porous building materials has been considered to be a result of solubility-dependent crystallisation; however, the factors responsible for this phenomenon are not clearly known. This paper aims to investigate the factors influencing the differential distribution of salts during capillary rise of soil water. In this study, the capillary transport of salts was simulated on two different sandstones—Locharbriggs, a Permo–Triassic, red sandstone and Stoke Hall, a Carboniferous, buff sandstone. The experiments were carried out under controlled environmental conditions to eliminate the possibility of evaporation-driven crystallisation of salts depending on their solubilities. The results indicate that fractionation or differential distribution of salts takes place even in the absence of evaporation and crystallisation. The sandstones exhibit properties like an ion exchange column, and ionic species present in the salt solution show differential distribution within the porous network of sandstone.  相似文献   

5.
Qualitative evidence from monuments and buildings in industrialized countries indicates that rates of stone deterioration rise in the presence of urban and industrial pollutants. Measurements presented here on surface reduction of marble tombstones show that mean weathering rates have increased over the period 1885 to 1955. Weathering rates were lower before the establishment of sulfur dioxide-emitting plants. Marble weathering involved solution etching along grain boundaries and within individual grains, and proceeded by surface roughening and dislodgement of grains with little apparent accumulation of gypsum. Absolute surface reduction of marble was less than that recorded in industrial environments in Europe and North America.  相似文献   

6.
Zircon and monazite from granulite- to amphibolite-facies rocks of the Vosges mountains (central Variscan Belt, eastern France) were dated by ion-microprobe and conventional U-Pb techniques. Different granulites of igneous (so-called leptynites) and sedimentary origin (kinzigites) and their leucosomes were dated at 334.9 ± 3.6, 335.4 ± 3.6 and 336.7 ± 3.5 Ma (conventional age 335.4 ± 0.6 Ma). Subsequent growth stages of zircon were distinguished by secondary electron (SEM) and cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging: (1) subsolidus growth producing round anhedral morphologies and sector zoning; (2) appearance of an intergranular fluid or melt phase at incipient dehydration melting that first resulted in resorption of pre-existing zircons, followed by growth of acicular zircons or overgrowths on round zircons consisting of planar growth zoning; (3) advanced melting producing euhedral prismatic zircons with oscillatory zoning overgrowing the sector zones. Two further lithologies, the Kaysersberg granite and the Trois-Epis units, were both formerly considered as migmatites. The intrusion of the Kaysersberg granite was dated at 325.8 ± 4.8 Ma. The Trois-Epis unit was found to be the product of volume recrystallization of a former granulite, which occurred under amphibolite-facies conditions 327.9 ± 4.4 Ma ago. The amphibolite-facies overprint of the Trois-Epis zircons led to the complete rejuvenation of most of the zircon domains by annealing and replacement/recrystallization processes. Annealing is assumed to occur in strained lattice domains, which are possibly disturbed by high trace element contents and/or large differences in decay damage between adjacent growth zones. Investigation of cathodoluminescence structures reveals that the replacement occurs along curved chemical reaction fronts that proceed from the surface towards the interior of the zircon. The monazite U-Pb system still records the age of high-grade metamorphism at around 335 Ma. The chemical reagent responsible for the rejuvenation of zircon obviously left the monazite unaffected. Received: 19 February 1998 / Accepted: 19 October 1998  相似文献   

7.
Sandstones, clay in the form of bricks and laterite are the building materials used by the Khmer to construct the imposing and magnificent temples in Southeast Asia. Many of these monuments suffer from fracturing, sanding, contour scaling, crust formation and salt weathering. The affinity to weathering is closely connected to the type of material. Two sandstone types classified as feldspathic arenite and quartz arenite of Angkor as well as two arkosic sandstones from Thailand are described and investigated in this study. Important petrophysical properties determined for the different sandstones consist of hydric expansion, thermal expansion, pore radii distribution and ultrasonic velocity. Different investigations such as capillary water uptake, surface hardness, hygroscopic water sorption, and salt resistance tests were undertaken in the laboratory to characterize the various rock types. Observations and quantified damage mapping were done onsite at the Phnom Bakheng Temple. Contour scaling in the form of weathering crusts is one of the main deterioration features observable at the Angkor monuments. Comparisons are made between the building stone, the crust material from the Phnom Bakheng Temple and fresh stone material used for restoration. Significant differences in hydric and especially in thermal expansion of the crust and sandstone have been determined. The results seem to indicate that extensional processes occur, which can be considered a force for detachment (i.e., contour scaling, flaking). In an experimental trial, the hydric and thermal expansion of the weathering crust and the building stone was significantly reduced by using a weak acid for the crust and a swelling inhibitor for the original building stone.  相似文献   

8.
Emerald mineralisation in Colombia is located in two distinct zones along the borders of the Eastern Cordillera, some 80 km apart. Mineralisation in the western zone has been dated at ca. 35 Ma whereas in the eastern zone it is 30 Ma older. Crush leach analysis of the electrolyte chemistry of fluid inclusions contained in emerald, quartz, calcite, dolomite and fluorite from both zones, demonstrates that in each region brines associated with emerald mineralisation range between two extremes with many samples yielding intermediate compositions. Fluid 1, found mainly in emerald-hosted fluid inclusions, is dominated by NaCl with high Cl:Br ratios indicating that the salinity was derived by dissolution of halite, most probably from the local salt beds. Fluid 2, found notably in quartz hosted-fluid inclusions, is of similar salinity but contains less Na and significant concentrations of Ca–K–Fe–Cl and other cations. It has lower Cl:Br ratios, more comparable with formation waters, but is inferred to have obtained part of its salinity by halite dissolution. Bivariate plots of almost all cations have linear or sublinear trends regardless of the mineral hosting the inclusions or the locality from which the samples originated, demonstrating that mixing of the two saline fluids has occurred. Because the same two fluids occur in both eastern and western zones, despite the difference in space and time, it is inferred that fluid compositions were rock controlled by similar interactions with evaporites and black shales in both instances. It is proposed that beryllium was transported as Be–F complexes in the NaCl-fluid, and was precipitated as emerald after mixing with the calcic brine caused precipitation of fluorite and parisite. Received: 9 April 1999 / Accepted: 14 March 2000  相似文献   

9.
Moisture in stone material is the key factor for all stone deterioration processes and also in weathering of cultural heritage. With additional presence of salts in the material the situation gets even more critical. While the properties of pure salts with moisture are well known, knowledge about the interaction of salt mixtures with moisture is still poor. In different approaches the reactions of salt-contaminated stone material on changing moisture were tested in the laboratory. Experiments with different solutions in the Na-Mg-SO4-NO3-H2O system revealed interesting new results on the moisture behaviour of salt-contaminated samples. Theoretical considerations and computer simulations are helpful to interpret the data obtained, but are not yet sufficient to explain the real processes acting on site at the monuments. More encouraging to this fact are complementary studies on visible efflorescences in the same salt system. It is shown how by experimental approaches the understanding on salt-induced stone deterioration is strongly complemented.  相似文献   

10.
Zircon and monazite U-(Th)-Pb ion microprobe analysis were performed on the Mazeno Pass pluton and the Jutial pluton, two leucogranite bodies within the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh massif (NPHM), Pakistan Himalaya. Zircon rim ages and monazite ages indicate the Mazeno Pass pluton in southwest NPHM intruded at 1.40 ± 0.05 Ma; the Jutial pluton, to the north, similarly yields concordant zircon and monazite ages suggesting crystallization at 9.45 ± 0.06 Ma. The Jutial pluton was subsequently intruded by leucogranite dikes at 5.3 Ma, as revealed by monazite ages. Concordancy of U-Pb and Th-Pb accessory mineral ages demonstrates the robustness of the technique on young rocks. Both plutons, some of the youngest in the Himalaya, have a general association with nearby shear zones that we interpret to have played an integral role in granite evolution and emplacement setting (`deformation enhanced ascent'). Together with new field observations, these results provide an insight on the spatial and temporal relationship between plutonism and deformation relating to the development of the massif. Received: 31 August 1998 / Accepted: 10 March 1999  相似文献   

11.
The crystallisation of soluble sulphate salts is one of the most important factors of stone monument degradation. The origin of these salts is variable: marine, air pollution, building or restoration material. The lack of certainty about these sources represents a problem for restoration campaigns. The use of sulphur and oxygen isotopic tracers allows to discriminate the origins of materials and some stone deterioration patterns like black crusts (e.g. [Šrámek J., 1988. Sulfur Isotopes in the revealing corrosion mechanism of stones. 6th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone,. Proceedings, ed. J. Ciabach. Nicholas Copernicus University, Torun, Poland, 341–345.]). First results obtained on the Bourges cathedral (France) show that the sulphur and oxygen isotopic composition of sulphates from external (atmospheric pollution) and internal (mortars, plasters and sulphates coming from stone sulphide oxidation) origins constitute well differentiated poles. The isotopic composition of sulphates implied in different stone deterioration patterns is well explained by a combination of these poles. The present study will be extended to other French monuments located in different lithological and hydroclimatic settings where contributions of sea salts and ancient chemical treatments are suspected.  相似文献   

12.
Atmospheric pollution is one of the main agents of decay in monuments and other works of art located in industrialised urban centres. SO2 is a permanent and abundant component of air pollution and, although it does not have an immediate visual effect, after continuous exposure, it can cause irreversible damage to building materials. Marble is one of the most commonly used ornamental stones in historical monuments and its mineralogical composition makes it very susceptible to damage caused by exposure to SO2. To measure the chemical reactions caused on marble by the action of atmosphere rich in SO2, selected calcitic and dolomitic samples were altered by weathering accelerated test. For this, seven marble types (four calcitic and three dolomitic) were exposed to high concentration of sulphur dioxide for 24 h in a climate chamber under controlled temperature and humidity conditions (20 °C and > 90 % HR). Changes on marble surfaces caused by reactions of SO2 with calcite and dolomite were studied using two non-destructive techniques: chromatic change by means of colorimetry and chemical analysis using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The development of new mineral phases was also observed by scanning electron microscopy. Colorimetric analysis revealed a decrease in lightness and chromatic parameters suggesting that these changes were due to the development of new mineral phases in all marbles. The XPS technique, which is generally used in the analysis of metals, is relatively new in the field of stone deterioration. It enabled us to recognise the development of sulphites and sulphates on marble surfaces with high precision, after just 24 h of exposure to high SO2 concentrations and to distinguish different decay paths for calcitic and dolomitic marbles.  相似文献   

13.
Summary The Palim granite, hosted by the metasedimentary country rocks in the Bastar tin province, is a heterogeneous pluton that comprises hornblende granite, biotite granite and two-mica granite. Spherical inhomogeneous surmicaceous enclaves occur within the granites with coarse grained cores of muscovite mantled by finer muscovite-quartz-biotite (± sillimanite) rims. Geochemical features imply that the granites are highly evolved and geochemically distinct. Petrographic and geochemical considerations point towards a transition from metaluminous I-type hornblende-bearing granite in the south to peraluminous volatile-enriched S-type like lithologies (biotite and two-mica granites) towards north. Modeling of highly incompatible elements such as Nb and Cs, implies 31 to 33% assimilated fractional crystallization of a melt with an initial composition close to that of the hornblende granite to form the two-mica granite. Hornblende geobarometry, plagioclase-hornblende thermometry (in hornblende granite) and phengite barometry (in two-mica granite), yield P-T estimates of 5–7 kb/725°–760 °C, and 6 kb/700 °C, respectively. The study further implies that a genetic link exists between granite magmatism and the formation of tin pegmatites in the region. The preponderance of peripheral pegmatites to the north-east of the Palim granite is regarded a result of outward crystal-melt fractionation and tectonic tilting of the pluton. Received October 21, 1999; revised version accepted December 12, 2000  相似文献   

14.
Niuxinshan is a typical example of the numerous mesothermal gold deposits formed during Mesozoic tectono-magmatic reactivation of the Archean North China Craton in eastern Hebei province. Gold occurs in quartz-sulfide lodes in Archean amphibolites and also in greisen zones in the Mesozoic Niuxinshan granite stock. Four mineralization stages can be recognized from early to late: (1) quartz-K-feldspar, (2) quartz-pyrite, (3) quartz-polysulfide, and (4) quartz-carbonate. Gold mineralization mainly occurs in stages 2 and 3. Fluid inclusions in quartz and fluorite from greisen zones in the Niuxinshan granite, and inclusions in vein quartz and sphalerite from stages 1 to 3 in the amphibolites, have been studied by microthermometry. Three compositional types of inclusions are recognized: type 1 (Tp1) are H2O-CO2-bearing inclusions and include primary (Tp1-P) and secondary (Tp1-S) inclusions. These are found in quartz and fluorite from the greisen zones as well as in vein quartz and sphalerite from stages 1 to 3. The Tp1-P inclusions are considered to represent the gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids. Type 2 (Tp2-S) are secondary H2O-CO2 + solid phase inclusions in fluorite from the greisen zones. Type 3 (Tp3-S) are secondary aqueous inclusions with a solid phase which coexist with the Tp2-S in fluorite from the greisen zones. The Tp1-P inclusions show variable VCO2 (commonly 0.3 to 0.6) and XCO2 values (mainly 0.1 to 0.4). The salinities of inclusions cluster around 3 to 11 wt.% NaCl equivalent and their homogenization temperatures to the liquid phase (Th(L)) fall dominantly in the range of 260 to 360 °C. The compositional variations of inclusions in stage 1 probably result from exsolution of magmatic fluids at various stages; immiscibility or boiling of the fluids can be ruled out. The compositional variations of inclusions in the greisen zones and in vein stages 2 and 3 are attributed to cooling, mixing (dilution), and necking-down of the fluids. The Tp1-S and Tp2-S inclusions show salinities of 3 to 6 wt.% NaCl equivalent and XCO2 values of 0.04 to 0.17. Th(L) clusters at 240 to 260 °C. The Tp3-S inclusions have salinities of 3 to 6 wt.% NaCl equivalent and Th(L) of 170 to 240 °C. Isochoric reconstructions, combined with oxygen and sulfur isotope geothermometry of mineral pairs, give trapping P-T conditions for the gold-bearing fluids. The greisen zones formed at 310 to 460 °C and 1.3 to 3.7 kbar; stage 1 veins at 300 to 430 °C and 1.2 to 3.7 kbar; stage 2 veins at 290 to 380 °C and 1 to 3 kbar; stage 3 veins at 250 to 350 °C and 1 to 3 kbar. H2O-CO2 fluids with low to moderate salinities and moderate to high densities (0.66 to 1.01 g/cm3) dominated at early mineralization stages, and evolved towards H2O-richer and CO2- and less saline fluids through time. The retrograde P-T evolution probably resulted from regional uplift and cooling of gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids. The gold bisulfide complex was dominant in the fluids during mineralization and gold deposition was mainly induced by decreases of temperature and pressure, as well as destabilization of the bisulfide complex during sulfidization of wall rocks. Received: 16 March 1998 / Accepted: 11 January 1999  相似文献   

15.
The composite Oberkirch pluton consists of three compositionally different units of peraluminous biotite granite. The northern unit is relatively mafic (SiO2∼64%) and lacks cordierite. The more felsic central and southern units (SiO2=67.8 to 70.4%) can only be distinguished from each other by the occurrence of cordierite in the former. Mafic microgranular enclaves of variable composition, texture and size occur in each of these units and are concentrated in their central domains. Most abundant are large (dm to m) hornblende-bearing enclaves with dioritic to tonalitic compositions (SiO2=50.8 to 56.3 wt%; Mg#=63 to 41) and fine grained doleritic textures that suggest chilling against the host granite magma. Some of these enclaves are mantled by hybrid zones. Less common are microtonalitic enclaves containing biotite as the only primary mafic phase (SiO2=53.7 to 64.4%) and small hybrid tonalitic to granodioritic enclaves and schlieren. Synplutonic dioritic dikes (up to 6 m thick) with hybrid transition zones to the host granite occur in the southern unit of the pluton. In chemical variation diagrams, samples from unmodified hornblende-bearing mafic enclaves and dikes form continuous trends that are compatible with an origin by fractionation of olivine, clinopyroxene, hornblende and plagioclase. Chemical and initial isotopic signatures (e.g. high Mg#, low Na2O, ɛNd=−1.2 to −5.1, 87Sr/86Sr=0.7055 to 0.7080, δ18O=8.0 to 8.8‰) exclude an origin by partial melting from a mafic meta-igneous source but favour derivation from a heterogeneous enriched lithospheric mantle. Samples from the granitic host rocks do not follow the chemical variation trends defined by the diorites but display large scatter. In addition, their initial isotopic characteristics (ɛNd=−4.5 to −6.8, 87Sr/86Sr=0.7071 to 0.7115, δ18O=9.9 to 11.9‰) show little overlap with those of the diorites. Most probably, the granitic magmas were derived from metapelitic sources characterized by variable amounts of garnet and plagioclase. This is suggested by relatively high molar ratios of Al2O3/(MgO+FeOtot) and K2O/Na2O, in combination with low ratios of CaO/(MgO+FeOtot), variable values of Sr/Nd, Eu/Eu*[=Eucn/(Smcn × Gdcn)0.5] and (Tb/Yb)cn (cn=chondrite-normalized) as well as variable abundances of Sc and Y. Whole-rock initial isotopic signatures of mafic microtonalitic enclaves (ɛNd=−4.6 to −5.2; 87Sr/86Sr=0.7060 to 0.7073; δ18O ∼8.1‰) are similar to those of the low ɛNd diorites. Plagioclase concentrates from a granite sample and a mafic microtonalitic enclave are characterized by initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios that are significantly higher than those of their bulk rock systems suggesting incorporation of high 87Sr/86Sr crustal material into the magmas. Field relationships and petrographic evidence suggest that the Oberkirch pluton originated by at least three pulses of granitic magma containing mafic magma globules. In-situ hybridization between the different magmas was limited. Late injection of dioritic magma into the almost solidified granitic southern unit resulted in the formation of more or less continuous synplutonic dikes surrounded by relatively thin hybrid zones. Received: 30 April 1999 / Accepted: 6 August 1999  相似文献   

16.
Summary A number of small Palaeoproterozoic granitoid plutons were emplaced in the Khetri Copper Belt, which is an important Proterozoic metallogenic terrane in the northeastern part of Aravalli mountain range. Contiguous Biharipur and Dabla plutons are located about 15 km southeast of Khetri, close to a 170 km long intracontinental rift zone. The plutons are composed of amphibole-bearing alkali-feldspar granites, comprising microcline-albite granite, albite granite and late-stage microgranite. The albite granite in Biharipur is confined to the margins of the pluton, and shows extensive commingling with the synchronous mafic plutonics. Geochemically, the albite granites are characterised by low K2O (∼0.5 wt.%) and elevated Na2O (∼7.0 wt.%) abundances. By contrast, the microcline-albite granite does not show any significant mafic-granite interactions and shows normal concentrations of alkali elements. The granitoids display high concentrations of the rare earth (except Eu) and high field strength elements, high values of Ga/Al (>2.5), agpaitic index and Fe*-number. These features together with their alkaline metaluminous and ferroan nature classify the rocks as typical A-type within-plate granites. All the granitoid facies display similar REE and incompatible element profiles indicating their cogenetic nature. These granitoids were emplaced in a shallow crustal chamber under relatively low pressures, high temperature (≥850 °C) and relatively oxidising conditions. The oxidised nature, HFSE concentrations and Nd isotope data (ɛNd = −1.3 to −2.9) favour derivation of these granitoid rocks from crustal protoliths. The generation of albite granite is attributed to the replacement of alkali feldspar and plagioclase of the original granite by pure albite as a consequence of pervasive infiltration of a high Na/(Na + K) fluid at the late-magmatic stage. This model may have wider significance for the generation of albite granites/low-K granites or albitites in other areas. The A-type plutonism under consideration seems to be an outcome of ensialic rifting of the Bhilwara aulacogen.  相似文献   

17.
 Sr isotope profiles across marble-silicate rock contacts are used in conjunction with previously published oxygen isotope profiles to constrain fluid movement, porosity and permeability contrasts in migmatitic rocks from Lizzies Basin in the East Humboldt Range, Nevada. The 18O/16O systematics in the high-grade sequence have been interpreted to reflect infiltration of ∼2×102 m3/m2 of a relatively low 18O hydrous fluid through the sequence, but with preservation of δ18O anomalies in thin marble bands due to a 30-fold lower porosity in the marble compared with silicate rocks (Wickham and Peters 1992). The Sr isotope profiles confirm that tracer exchange between marble and silicate rock was primarily by diffusion, and in one case, indicate that porosities differed by less than a factor of four in the ∼10 cm boundary layer which exhibits diffusive modification of 87Sr/86Sr ratios. This contrasts with modelling of the oxygen isotope profiles which imply porosity contrasts >10 for one marble band and >50 for a second marble band. Either strontium and oxygen isotope diffusion reflect different events (possible if fluid Sr contents varied with time) or porosity varied substantially with the silicate rocks. Oxygen isotope profiles in the deeper part of the metamorphic section in which δ18O values of silicate rocks have been homogenised and lowered, indicate similar diffusion distances (and thus porosity-time evolution) to oxygen isotopic profiles higher in the section. Comparison of strontium and oxygen isotope diffusion distances constrains fluid Sr contents to between ∼50 and ∼500 ppm deep in the section, but less than ∼10 ppm higher in the section. The difference is related to release of relatively saline, Sr-rich fluids, by the abundant leucogranites and associated skarns deep in the section (cf. Peters and Wickham 1995). Received: 9 December 1994/Accepted: 13 April 1995  相似文献   

18.
Analyses of deterioration of the Cappadocian tuff, Turkey   总被引：8，自引：3，他引：5  
 The Cappadocian tuff contains unique erosional features, the so-called fairy chimneys, some of which in the past were dwelled in and contain valuable wall paintings. These historical heritages, however, are undergoing chemical and physical deterioration due to atmospheric effects. For the conservation studies, understanding of the deterioration phenomenon of the tuff is essential. In this study, engineering geological and physicochemical characteristics of the tuff were determined. The durability of the tuff was assessed through wetting-drying, freezing-thawing, and salt crystallization. The test results suggest that chemical weathering may be traced to a depth of 2 cm below lichen-covered surfaces and 20 cm adjacent to discolored joint walls. Based on durability assessment methods, the tuff may be classified as having poor to very poor durability. Received: 16 December 1996 · Accepted: 3 April 1997  相似文献   

19.
Using a recently developed ion microprobe technique, a detailed oxygen isotope map of calcite grains in a coarse-grained marble has been constructed, supported by trace element (Mn, Sr, Fe) analysis and cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging, in order to constrain scales of oxygen isotope equilibrium, timescales and mechanisms of metamorphic fluid infiltration, and fluid sources and pathways. Results are compared with a previous study of this sample (Wada 1988) carried out using a cryo-microtome technique and conventional oxygen isotope analysis. The marble, from the high temperature/low pressure Hida metamorphic belt in north-central Japan, underwent granulite facies followed by amphibolite facies metamorphic events, the latter associated with regional granite intrusion. The CL imaging indicates two types of calcite, a yellow luminescing (YLC) and a purple luminescing (PLC) variety. The YLC, which occupies grain boundaries, fractures, replacement patches, and most of the abundant deformation twin lamellae, post-dates the dominant PLC calcite and maps out fluid pathways. Systematic relationships were established between oxygen isotope and trace element composition, calcite type and texture, based on 74 18O/16O and 17 trace element analyses with 20–30 μ m spatial resolution. The YLC is enriched in Mn and Fe, and depleted in 18O and Sr compared to PLC, and is much more 18O depleted than is indicated from conventional analyses. Results are interpreted to indicate infiltration of 18O-depleted (metamorphic or magmatic) fluid (initial δ18O = 9‰–10.5‰) along grain boundaries, fractures and deformation twin lamellae, depleting calcite grains in Sr and enriching them in Mn and Fe. The sample is characterised by gross isotopic and elemental disequilibrium, with important implications for the application of chromatographic theory to constrain fluid fluxes in metacarbonate rocks. Areas of PLC unaffected by “short-circuiting” fluid pathways contain oxygen diffusion profiles of ∼10‰/∼200 μm in grain boundary regions or adjacent to fractures/patches. When correction is made for estimated grain boundary/fracture and profile orientation in 3D, profiles are indistinguishable within error. Modelling of these profiles gives consistent estimates of Dt (where D is the diffusion coefficient and t is time) of ∼0.8 × 10−8 m2, from which, using experimental data for oxygen diffusion in calcite, timescales of fluid transport along grain boundaries at amphibolite facies temperatures of ∼103 to ∼104 years are obtained. These short timescales, which are much shorter than plausible durations of metamorphism, imply that rock permeabilities may be transiently much higher during fluid flow than those calculated from time integrated fluid fluxes or predicted from laboratory measurements. The preservation of 18O/16O profiles requires either rapid cooling rates (∼100–600 °C/million years), or, more plausibly, loss of grain boundary fluid such that a dry cooling history followed the transient passage of fluid. The δ18O/trace element correlations are also consistent with volume diffusion-controlled transport in the PLC. Fluid transport and element exchange occurred by two inter-related mechanisms on short timescales and on different lengthscales – long-distance flow along cracks, grain boundaries and twin lamellae coupled to ∼200 μm-scale volume diffusion of oxygen. Received: 8 December 1997 / Accepted: 18 May 1998  相似文献   

20.
Following automation of lighthouses around the coastline of Ireland, reports of accelerated deterioration of interior granite stonework have increased significantly with an associated deterioration in the historic structure and rise in related maintenance costs. Decay of granite stonework primarily occurs through granular disintegration with the effective grusification of granite surfaces. A decay gradient exists within the towers whereby the condition of granite in the lower levels is much worse than elsewhere. The lower tower levels are also regions with highest relative humidity values and greatest salt concentrations. Data indicate that post-automation decay may have been triggered by a change in micro-environmental conditions within the towers associated with increased episodes of condensation on stone surfaces. This in turn appears to have facilitated deposition and accumulation of hygroscopic salts (e.g. NaCl) giving rise to widespread evidence of deliquescence in the lower tower levels. Evidence indicates that the main factors contributing to accelerated deterioration of interior granite stonework are changes in micro-environmental conditions, salt weathering, chemical weathering through the corrosive effect of strongly alkaline conditions on alumino-silicate minerals within the granite and finally, the mica-rich characteristics of the granite itself which increases its structural and chemical susceptibility to subaerial weathering processes by creating points of weakness within the granite. This case study demonstrates how seemingly minor changes in micro-environmental conditions can unintentionally trigger the rapid and extensive deterioration of a previously stable rock type and threaten the long-term future of nationally iconic operational historic structures.  相似文献   

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