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Pivoting analyses of the selective entrainment of sediments by shape and size with application to gravel threshold 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Measured variations of pivoting angles with grain size, shape (‘reliability’ and angularity) and imbrication are employed in analyses of grain threshold to examine how these factors influence selective grain entrainment and sorting. With a bed of uniform grain sizes, as employed experimentally to establish the standard threshold curves such as that of Shields, the threshold condition depends on grain shape and fabric. The analysis demonstrates quantitatively that there should be a series of nearly-parallel threshold curves depending on grain pivoting angles. For a given grain size, the order of increasing flow strength required for entrainment is spheres, smooth ellipsoids (depending on their ‘reliability’), angular grains, and imbricated ellipsoids (depending on their imbrication angles). The relative threshold values for these different grain shapes and fabric are predicted according to their respective pivoting angles, but remain to be directly tested by actual threshold measurements. The pivoting angle of a grain also depends on the ratio of its size to those it rests upon. This dependence permits an evaluation of selective entrainment by size of grains from a bed of mixed sizes, the condition generally found in natural sediments. The pivoting model predicts systematic departures from the standard threshold curves for uniform grain sizes. Such departures have been found in recent studies of gravel threshold in rivers and offshore tidal currents. The pivoting model is compared with those threshold data with reasonable agreement. However, more controlled measurements are required for a satisfactory test of the model. It is concluded that variations in pivoting angles for grain entrainment are significant to the processes of selective sorting by grain size and shape. 相似文献
3.
Reported here are results from new flume experiments examining deposition and entrainment of inert, silt‐sized particles (with spherical diameters in the range from 20 to 60 μm) to and from planar, impermeable and initially starved beds underlying channel flows. Bed surfaces comprised smooth or fixed sand‐size granular roughness and provided hydraulically smooth to transitionally rough boundaries. Results of these experiments were analysed with a simple model that describes the evolution of vertically averaged concentration of suspended sediment and accommodates the simultaneous delivery to and entrainment of grains from the bed. The rate of particle arrival to a bed diminishes linearly, and the rate of particle entrainment increases by the 5/2 power, as the value of the dimensionless Saffman parameter S = u*3/g’ν approaches a threshold value of order unity, where u is the conventional friction velocity of the turbulent channel flow, g’ is the acceleration due to gravity adjusted for the submerged buoyancy of individual particles and ν is the kinematic viscosity of the transporting fluid. This transport behaviour is consistent with the notion that non‐cohesive, silt‐sized particles can neither reach nor remain on an impermeable bed under flow conditions where mean lift imposed on stationary particles in the viscous sublayer equals or exceeds the submerged weight of individual particles. Within the size range of particles used in these experiments, particle size and the characteristic size of granular roughness, up to that of medium sand, did not affect rates of dimensionless arrival or entrainment to a significant degree. Instead, a new but consistent picture of fine‐particle transport is emerging. Silt‐sized material, at least, is subject to potentially significant interaction with the bed during intermittent suspension transport at intermediate flow speeds greater than the value required for initiation of transport (ca 20 cm sec?1) but less than the value (ca 50 cm sec?1) required by the Saffman criterion ensuring transport in fully passive suspension or, equivalently, ‘wash‐load’. 相似文献
4.
The Lower Cretaceous Britannia Formation (North Sea) includes an assemblage of sandstone beds interpreted here to be the deposits of turbidity currents, debris flows and a spectrum of intermediate flow types termed slurry flows. The term ‘slurry flow’ is used here to refer to watery flows transitional between turbidity currents, in which particles are supported primarily by flow turbulence, and debris flows, in which particles are supported by flow strength. Thick, clean, dish‐structured sandstones and associated thin‐bedded sandstones showing Bouma Tb–e divisions were deposited by high‐ and low‐density turbidity currents respectively. Debris flow deposits are marked by deformed, intraformational mudstone and sandstone masses suspended within a sand‐rich mudstone matrix. Most Britannia slurry‐flow deposits contain 10–35% detrital mud matrix and are grain supported. Individual beds vary in thickness from a few centimetres to over 30 m. Seven sedimentary structure division types are recognized in slurry‐flow beds: (M1) current structured and massive divisions; (M2) banded units; (M3) wispy laminated sandstone; (M4) dish‐structured divisions; (M5) fine‐grained, microbanded to flat‐laminated units; (M6) foundered and mixed layers that were originally laminated to microbanded; and (M7) vertically water‐escape structured divisions. Water‐escape structures are abundant in slurry‐flow deposits, including a variety of vertical to subvertical pipe‐ and sheet‐like fluid‐escape conduits, dish structures and load structures. Structuring of Britannia slurry‐flow beds suggests that most flows began deposition as turbidity currents: fully turbulent flows characterized by turbulent grain suspension and, commonly, bed‐load transport and deposition (M1). Mud was apparently transported largely as hydrodynamically silt‐ to sand‐sized grains. As the flows waned, both mud and mineral grains settled, increasing near‐bed grain concentration and flow density. Low‐density mud grains settling into the denser near‐bed layers were trapped because of their reduced settling velocities, whereas denser quartz and feldspar continued settling to the bed. The result of this kinetic sieving was an increasing mud content and particle concentration in the near‐bed layers. Disaggregation of mud grains in the near‐bed zone as a result of intense shear and abrasion against rigid mineral grains caused a rapid increase in effective clay surface area and, hence, near‐bed cohesion, shear resistance and viscosity. Eventually, turbulence was suppressed in a layer immediately adjacent to the bed, which was transformed into a cohesion‐dominated viscous sublayer. The banding and lamination in M2 are thought to reflect the formation, evolution and deposition of such cohesion‐dominated sublayers. More rapid fallout from suspension in less muddy flows resulted in the development of thin, short‐lived viscous sublayers to form wispy laminated divisions (M3) and, in the least muddy flows with the highest suspended‐load fallout rates, direct suspension sedimentation formed dish‐structured M4 divisions. Markov chain analysis indicates that these divisions are stacked to form a range of bed types: (I) dish‐structured beds; (II) dish‐structured and wispy laminated beds; (III) banded, wispy laminated and/or dish‐structured beds; (IV) predominantly banded beds; and (V) thickly banded and mixed slurried beds. These different bed types form mainly in response to the varying mud contents of the depositing flows and the influence of mud on suspended‐load fallout rates. The Britannia sandstones provide a remarkable and perhaps unique window on the mechanics of sediment‐gravity flows transitional between turbidity currents and debris flows and the textures and structuring of their deposits. 相似文献
5.
Experimental data are presented demonstrating the influence of boundary layer flow conditions on aerodynamic entrainment of grains in the absence of intersaltation collisions. New methods are proposed for (1) the unambiguous determination of aerodynamic threshold for any grain population and (2) approximation of the probability density function (PDF) distributions of threshold shear velocity for aerodynamic entrainment. In wind tunnel experiments, the orderly spatial development of flow conditions within a developing boundary layer over the roughened surface of a flat plate constrains the aerodynamic threshold condition in terms of both mean and fluctuating values. Initial grain dislodgements and subsequent erosion from narrow strips of loose, finely fractionated ballotini were recorded photographically as wind speed was increased. Boundary layer parameters, including average threshold shear velocity (U*t), were calculated using the momentum integral method. Direct observations show that sporadic oscillation of grains preceded dislodgement. At slightly higher velocities most grains rolled over their neighbours before entering saltation. Initial entrainment in spatially semi-organized flurries of 50 or more grains was followed by quiescent periods at airflow velocities close to threshold. These observations provide strong circumstantial evidence linking both the nature and spatial pattern of initial grain motions to sweep events during the fluid bursting process. For each grain fraction, values of U*t were found to span an unexpectedly wide range and to decrease downwind from the leading edge of the plate as turbulence intensity increased. A probabilistic entrainment model is applied to the aerodynamic threshold condition so as to incorporate the effects of changing turbulent flow regimes over the plate. Analysis of strip erosion curves gives both an objective definition of the threshold condition and usable approximations of the PDF for U*t required by the model and for future stochastic treatment of the threshold condition. 相似文献
6.
Models of sediment threshold by grain pivoting or sliding over underlying particles are examined in order to explore their application to evaluations of selective entrainment of gravel by flowing water. Of special interest is whether such process-based models provide satisfactory evaluations of flow competence and the movement of large clasts by floods. A detailed derivation is undertaken, focusing first on the fluid flow and forces at the particle level. The resulting threshold equation for the particle-level velocity is then modified to yield the mean entrainment stress for the flow as a whole. This approach is appropriate for considerations of selective entrainment of grains of varying sizes within a deposit, the sorting being due to their relative projection distances above the bed and the dependence of their pivoting angles on grain size and shape. The resulting threshold equations contain a number of coefficients (e.g. drag and lift) whose values are poorly known, but can be constrained by requiring agreement with the Shields curve for the threshold of grains in uniform deposits. If pivoting coefficients based on laboratory measurements with tetrahedral arrangements of particles are used in the models, smaller degrees of selective sorting are predicted than found in the field measurements of gravel entrainment. However, if reasonable modifications of those coefficients are made for expected field conditions, then the models yield good agreement with the data. Sliding models, where sorting is due entirely to projection distances of the grains above the bed, yield somewhat poorer agreement with the field data; however, the sliding models may have support from laboratory experiments on gravel entrainment in that the data and theoretical curves have similar concave trends. The existing measurements lack documentation of the mechanisms of grain movement, so it is not possible to conclusively determine the relative importance of grain pivoting versus sliding. In spite of such uncertainties, the results are encouraging and it is concluded that pivoting and sliding models for grain entrainment do have potential for field computations of selective entrainment and flow competence. 相似文献
7.
Laboratory measurements of pivoting angles for applications to selective entrainment of gravel in a current 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Important to grain entrainment by a flowing fluid is the pivoting angle of the grain about its contact point with an underlying grain. A series of experiments has been undertaken to determine how this angle depends on grain shape (rollability and angularity), on the ratio of the size of the pivoting grain to those beneath, and on factors such as imbrication. The experiments involved gravel-sized spheres (ball-bearings and marbles), natural pebbles selected for their approximately triaxial ellipsoid shapes, and angular crushed basalt pebbles. The pivoting angles for these grains were measured on an apparatus consisting of a board which can be progressively inclined, the angle of the board being equal to the pivoting angle at the instant of grain movement. The pivoting angles of spheres showed reasonable agreement with a theoretically derived equation, showing much better agreement than in previous studies which utilized sand-sized spheres. A series of measurements with spheres ranging from sand to gravel sizes reveals that the pivoting angles decrease with increasing particle size. Our results are therefore consistent with the earlier studies limited to sand-size spheres. The cause of this size dependence is unknown since moisture and electrostatic binding can be ruled out. Similar size dependencies are also found for the ellipsoidal pebbles and angular gravel. The experiments with ellipsoidal pebbles demonstrated a strong shape dependence for the pivoting angle, being a function of the ratio of the pebble's smallest to intermediate axial diameters. This ratio controls the grain's ability to roll and pivot; with small ratios of these diameters the pebbles tended to slide out of position, whereas with ratios closer to unity (circular cross-section) true pivoting took place and the angles were smaller. Experiments with flat pebbles placed in an imbricated arrangement yielded much larger angles than when the pebbles lay in a horizontal position, the pivoting angle being increased approximately by the imbrication angle. The angular crushed gravel also required high pivoting angles, apparently due to interlocking of the grains resulting from their angularity. Other factors being equal, the measurements of pivoting angles demonstrate that the order of increasing difficulty of entrainment is spheres, ellipsoidal grains, angular grains, and imbricated grains. The results obtained here make possible the quantitative evaluation of these shape effects on grain threshold, as well as evaluation of the selective entrainment of grains from a bed of mixed sizes. 相似文献
8.
Sediments contained in the river bed do not necessarily contribute to morphological change. The finest part of the sediment mixture often fills the pores between the larger grains and can be removed without causing a drop in bed level. The discrimination between pore‐filling load and bed‐structure load, therefore, is of practical importance for morphological predictions. In this study, a new method is proposed to estimate the cut‐off grain size that forms the boundary between pore‐filling load and bed‐structure load. The method evaluates the pore structure of the river bed geometrically. Only detailed grain‐size distributions of the river bed are required as input to the method. A preliminary validation shows that the calculated porosity and cut‐off size values agree well with experimental data. Application of the new cut‐off size method to the river Rhine demonstrates that the estimated cut‐off size decreases in a downstream direction from about 2 to 0·05 mm, covariant with the downstream fining of bed sediments. Grain size fractions that are pore‐filling load in the upstream part of the river thus gradually become bed‐structure load in the downstream part. The estimated (mass) percentage of pore‐filling load in the river bed ranges from 0% in areas with a unimodal river bed, to about 22% in reaches with a bimodal sand‐gravel bed. The estimated bed porosity varies between 0·15 and 0·35, which is considerably less than the often‐used standard value of 0·40. The predicted cut‐off size between pore‐filling load and bed‐structure load (Dc,p) is fundamentally different from the cut‐off size between wash‐load and bed‐material load (Dc,w), irrespective of the method used to determine Dc,p or Dc,w. Dc,w values are in the order of 10?1 mm and mainly dependent on the flow characteristics, whereas Dc,p values are generally much larger (about 100 mm in gravel‐bed rivers) and dependent on the bed composition. Knowledge of Dc,w is important for the prediction of the total sediment transport in a river (including suspended fines that do not interact with the bed), whereas knowledge of Dc,p helps to improve morphological predictions, especially if spatial variations in Dc,p are taken into account. An alternative to using a spatially variable value of Dc,p in morphological models is to use a spatially variable bed porosity, which can also be predicted with the new method. In addition to the morphological benefits, the new method also has sedimentological applications. The possibility to determine quickly whether a sediment mixture is clast‐supported or matrix‐supported may help to better understand downstream fining trends, sediment entrainment thresholds and variations in hydraulic conductivity. 相似文献
9.
Channel morphology and bed sediment erodibility are two crucial factors that significantly affect debris flow entrainment processes. Current debris flow entrainment models mostly hypothesize the erodible beds are infinite with uniform slopes. In this study, a series of small-scale flume experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of bed longitudinal inflexion and sediment porosity on basal entrainment characteristics. Experimental observations revealed that sediment entrainment is negligible at early stages and accelerates rapidly as several erosion points appear. Continual evolution of flow-bed interfaces changes interactions between debris flows and bed sediments, rendering the interfacial shear action involved into a mixed shear and frontal collisional action. Lower bed sediment porosity will change the spatial arrangement and orientation of particle mixture, strengthen the interlocking and anti-slide forces of adjacent sediment particles, and promote the formation of particle clusters, all of which will increase bed sediment resistance to erosion. By examining the post-experimental bed morphology, the slope-cutting amounts and topographic reliefs are determined to positively correlate with longitudinal transition angles. These high topographic reliefs may indicate the propensity of triangular slab erosion, rather than strip-shaped slab erosion, in non-uniform channels with relatively steep erodible beds. Empirical formulas are obtained that denote the relationships among bed sediment strength, channel curvature radius, and sediment porosity through a multi-parameter regression analysis. This study may aid in clarifying the complex coupling effects of spatial variations in debris flow dynamics as well as sediment erodibility and bed morphology in non-uniform channels with abundant seismic loose material.
相似文献10.
PETER J. TALLING DOUGLAS G. MASSON ESTHER J. SUMNER GIUSEPPE MALGESINI 《Sedimentology》2012,59(7):1937-2003
Submarine sediment density flows are one of the most important processes for moving sediment across our planet, yet they are extremely difficult to monitor directly. The speed of long run‐out submarine density flows has been measured directly in just five locations worldwide and their sediment concentration has never been measured directly. The only record of most density flows is their sediment deposit. This article summarizes the processes by which density flows deposit sediment and proposes a new single classification for the resulting types of deposit. Colloidal properties of fine cohesive mud ensure that mud deposition is complex, and large volumes of mud can sometimes pond or drain‐back for long distances into basinal lows. Deposition of ungraded mud (TE‐3) most probably finally results from en masse consolidation in relatively thin and dense flows, although initial size sorting of mud indicates earlier stages of dilute and expanded flow. Graded mud (TE‐2) and finely laminated mud (TE‐1) most probably result from floc settling at lower mud concentrations. Grain‐size breaks beneath mud intervals are commonplace, and record bypass of intermediate grain sizes due to colloidal mud behaviour. Planar‐laminated (TD) and ripple cross‐laminated (TC) non‐cohesive silt or fine sand is deposited by dilute flow, and the external deposit shape is consistent with previous models of spatial decelerating (dissipative) dilute flow. A grain‐size break beneath the ripple cross‐laminated (TC) interval is common, and records a period of sediment reworking (sometimes into dunes) or bypass. Finely planar‐laminated sand can be deposited by low‐amplitude bed waves in dilute flow (TB‐1), but it is most likely to be deposited mainly by high‐concentration near‐bed layers beneath high‐density flows (TB‐2). More widely spaced planar lamination (TB‐3) occurs beneath massive clean sand (TA), and is also formed by high‐density turbidity currents. High‐density turbidite deposits (TA, TB‐2 and TB‐3) have a tabular shape consistent with hindered settling, and are typically overlain by a more extensive drape of low‐density turbidite (TD and TC,). This core and drape shape suggests that events sometimes comprise two distinct flow components. Massive clean sand is less commonly deposited en masse by liquefied debris flow (DCS), in which case the clean sand is ungraded or has a patchy grain‐size texture. Clean‐sand debrites can extend for several tens of kilometres before pinching out abruptly. Up‐current transitions suggest that clean‐sand debris flows sometimes form via transformation from high‐density turbidity currents. Cohesive debris flows can deposit three types of ungraded muddy sand that may contain clasts. Thick cohesive debrites tend to occur in more proximal settings and extend from an initial slope failure. Thinner and highly mobile low‐strength cohesive debris flows produce extensive deposits restricted to distal areas. These low‐strength debris flows may contain clasts and travel long distances (DM‐2), or result from more local flow transformation due to turbulence damping by cohesive mud (DM‐1). Mapping of individual flow deposits (beds) emphasizes how a single event can contain several flow types, with transformations between flow types. Flow transformation may be from dilute to dense flow, as well as from dense to dilute flow. Flow state, deposit type and flow transformation are strongly dependent on the volume fraction of cohesive fine mud within a flow. Recent field observations show significant deviations from previous widely cited models, and many hypotheses linking flow type to deposit type are poorly tested. There is much still to learn about these remarkable flows. 相似文献
11.
An iterative least-squares optimization technique is utilized in conjunction with a one-dimensional representation of the
mass transport equation to generate theoretical210Pb concentration/depth profiles beneath the water-sediment interface that are best-fit approximations to directly measured210Pb concentration/depth profiles at various locations within the Great Lakes system. The outputs of such an optimization analysis
are the diffusion coefficientsD
M
(molecular) andD
B
(bioturbation) associated with the transport of210Pb radionuclides in lake bed sediments.
For all stations studied, the estimated values ofD
B
are consistently larger than the estimated values ofD
M
, emphasizing the importance of accounting for the effects of bioturbation in the modelling of contaminant transport through
lake bed sediments. 相似文献
12.
The NE to ENE trending Mesozoic Xingcheng-Taili ductile shear zone of the northeastern North China Craton was shaped by three phases of deformation. Deformation phase D1 is characterized by a steep, generally E–W striking gneissosity. It was then overprinted by deformation phase D2 with NE-sinistral shear with K-feldspar porphyroclasts forming a subhorizontal low-angle stretching lineation on a steep foliation. During deformation phase D3, lateral motion accommodated by ENE sinistral strike-slip shear zones dominated. Associated fabrics developed at upper greenschist metamorphic facies conditions and show the deformation characteristics of middle- to shallow crustal levels. In some parts, the older structures have been in turn overprinted by late-stage sinistral D3 shearing. Finite strain and kinematic vorticity in all deformed granitic rocks indicate a prolate ellipsoid (L-S tectonites) near plane strain. Simple shear-dominated general shear during D3 deformation is probably of general significance. The quartz c-axis textures indicate prism-gliding with a dominant rhomb <a> slip and basal <a> slip system formed mainly at low-middle temperatures. Mineral deformation behavior, quartz c-axis textures, quartz grain size and the Kruhl thermometer demonstrate that the ductile shear zone developed under greenschist facies metamorphic conditions at deformation temperatures ranging from 400 to 500 °C. Dislocation creep is the main deformation mechanism at a shallow crustal level. Fractal analysis showed that the boundaries of recrystallized quartz grains had statistically self-similarities. Differential stresses deduced from dynamically recrystallized quartz grain size are at around 20–39 MPa, and strain rates in the order of 10−12 to 10−14 s−1. This indicates deformation of granitic rocks in the Xingcheng-Taili ductile shear zone at low strain rates, which is consistent with most other ductile shear zones. Hornblende-plagioclase thermometer and white mica barometer indicate metamorphic conditions of medium pressures at around ca. 3–5 kbar and temperatures of 400–500 °C within greenschist facies conditions. The main D3 deformation of the ENE-trending sinistral strike-slip ductile shearing is related to the roll-back of the subducting Pacific plate beneath the North China Craton. 相似文献
13.
PENG GAO 《Sedimentology》2012,59(6):1926-1935
A recently developed bedload equation (Abrahams & Gao, 2006) has the form ib = ωG3˙4, where ib is the immersed bedload transport rate, ω is the stream power per unit area, G = 1?θc/θ, θ is the dimensionless shear stress and θc is the associated threshold value for the incipient motion of bed grains. This equation has a parsimonious form and provides good predictions of transport rate in both the saltation and sheetflow regimes (i.e. flows with low and high θ values, respectively). In this study, the equation was validated using data independent of those used for developing it. The data represent bedload of identical sizes transported in various steady, uniform, fully rough and turbulent flows over plane, mobile beds. The equation predicted ib quite well over five orders of magnitude. This equation was further compared with six classic bedload equations and showed the best performance. Its theoretical significance was subsequently examined in two ways. First, based on collision theory, the parameter G was related to the ratio of grain‐to‐grain collisions to the total collisions including both grain‐to‐grain and grain‐to‐bed collisions, Pg by Pg = G2, suggesting that G characterizes the dynamic processes of bedload transport from the perspective of granular flow, which partly accounts for the good performance of the equation. Moreover, examining the ability of two common equations to predict bedload in gravel‐bed rivers revealed that G can also be used to simplify equations for predicting transport capacities in such rivers. Second, a simple dimensionless form of the equation was created by introducing B = ib/ω. The theoretical nature of the term B was subsequently revealed by comparing this equation with both the Bagnold model and two commonly used parameters representing dimensionless bedload transport rates. 相似文献
14.
Vertical gradational structures develop as sand infiltrates into static gravel beds. Understanding the vertical distribution of interstitial sand deposits will improve predictions of ecological suitability and hyporheic hydrodynamics. A series of flume experiments was performed to investigate fine infiltration processes. Four sand distributions were introduced into flows over gravel beds. After each experiment, bed cores were extracted and analysed in vertical layers to examine the gradational trends with depth. Vertical trends of fine content were highly sensitive to the relative grain‐size distributions of the gravel bed and the introduced sand. For experiments with d15gravel/d85sand ratios 15·4 and larger unimpeded static percolation was observed, where sand filled the voids relatively uniformly from the bottom of the gravel layer to the top. Experiments with ratios 10·6 and smaller bridged. Sand clogged a thin layer of gravel pores near the bed surface, precluding subsequent infiltration. Interstitial sand deposits fined with depth of penetration for all experiments which was the result of three distinct but overlapping processes. (i) Granular sorting: As particles fell through the substrate, smaller material preferentially passed through the voids deeper into the gravel. (ii) Bed‐load sorting: Size segregation occurs in the wake of the leading bed form as smaller particles saltate further and settle first. (iii) Hydraulic sorting: Smaller sand was transported preferentially as suspended load filling the deep voids of the furthest flume positions downstream. Finally, when the experiments that formed a bridge layer were replicated with higher bed shear stresses, less interstitial sand deposition was observed. Higher shear stresses transported coarse particles downstream more efficiently causing bridge layers to form earlier and allowing less time for suspended load to settle into the deeper substrate pores before the pathways were closed. 相似文献
15.
Steady state saltation in air 总被引：44，自引：0，他引：44
Coupled equations of motion for steady state saltation over an infinite plane are derived and solved for a simplified model of the grain-surface impact process. Experimentally observed features of the wind velocity profile in saltation are qualitatively reproduced, including a diminution of the sub-saltation layer mean wind speed, as the friction speed increases. In this model the surface impact velocity of the saltating grains remains relatively constant over a wide range of free-stream shear stresses, and the grain mass flux increases with friction speed uf* less rapidly than uf3. 相似文献
16.
Grain sorting in gravel-bed streams and the choice of particle sizes for flow-competence evaluations 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Flow-competence assessments of floods have been based on the largest particle sizes transported, and yield either the mean flow stress, mean velocity, or discharge per unit flow width. The use of extreme particle sizes has potential problems in that they may have been transported by debris flows rather than by the flood, it may be difficult to locate the largest particles within the flood deposits, and there are questions concerning how representative one or a few large particles might be of the transported sediments and therefore of the flood hydraulics. Such problems would be eliminated for the most part if competence evaluations are based on median grain sizes of transported sediments, or perhaps on some coarse percentile that is established by a reasonable number of grains. In order to examine such issues, the gravel-transport data of Milhous from Oak Creek, Oregon, and of Carling from Great Eggleshope Beck, England, have been analysed in terms of changing grain-size percentiles with varying flow stresses. A comparison between these two data sets is of added interest because the bed material in Oak Creek is segregated into well-developed pavement and subpavement layers, while such a layering of bed materials is largely absent in Great Eggleshope Beck. The analyses show that the trend of increasing sizes of the largest particles in the bedload samples (diameter Dm) with increasing flow stresses is consistent with similar dependencies based on sieve percentiles ranging from the medians (D50) to the 95th percentiles (D95). This indicates that the largest particles are an integral part of the overall distributions of bedload grain sizes, and respond to changing flow hydraulics along with the rest of the size distribution. In Oak Creek, the median grain size shows the largest change with increasing flow stresses, followed by D60, and so on to D95 which shows the smallest change. The variations in Dm continue this trend, and are similar to those for D95. This systematic variation of grain-size percentiles in Oak Creek is consistent with changes in the overall distributions which tend to be symmetrical and Gaussian for low discharges, but become skewed Rosin distributions for high discharges. In contrast, in Great Eggleshope Beck the several percentiles and Dm show the same rate of shift to coarser sizes as flow stresses increase. This results in part from differences in sampling techniques wherein the bedload samples from Great Eggleshope Beck represent a complete flood event, while shorterterm samples at a specific flow stage were obtained in Oak Creek. As a result of the integrated sampling in Great Eggleshope Beck, the bedload grain-size distributions are more complex, commonly with a bimodal pattern. However, after accounting for differences in sampling schemes in the two streams, contrasting patterns in changing grain-size distributions remain, and these are concluded to reflect grain sorting differences as the bedload grain-size distributions approach the distributions of the bed materials. It is surprising that if criteria commonly employed to demonstrate the equal mobility of different grain sizes are used in the comparison, then Great Eggleshope Beck is far closer to this condition in spite of its minimal development of a pavement. It is concluded that the respective shapes of the bed-material grain-size distributions, in particular their degrees of skewness, are more important to the observed sorting patterns than are the effects of a pavement layer regulating grain entrapment to produce an equal mobility of different grain sizes. Therefore, the comparison has established that flow-competence relationships will differ from one stream to another, depending on the pattern of grain sorting which is a function of the bedmaterial grain-size distribution. 相似文献
17.
A comparison between Shields' threshold criterion and the movement of loosely packed gravel in a tidal channel 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Observations of the threshold of movement of loosely packed gravel in a tidal current are described. For gravel with equivalent ‘spherical’ diameters D in the range 0.2 ?D? 5.0cm the critical friction velocity u*c, corresponding to the initiation of sediment transport, is given by u*c=7.0 D0.2. At large values of D within the quoted range, the value u*c is significantly lower than would be obtained by a Shields experiment (u*c∞D0.5). By comparing our values of u*c with those obtained under well-controlled laboratory conditions, the discrepancy with Shields is shown to be due to the open spacing between, and exposure of, individual pebbles on the seabed. By comparing our results with those from upland gravel streams and flume experiments, it is suggested that Shields assumed an excessively large water depth to particle size ratio as a constraint within which the critical sediment entrainment number 0c is valid. 相似文献
18.
Existing formulations for bed sediment entrainment under steady flow are incapable of explaining two well-documented observational facts: (i) water flow requires considerably higher dimensionless shear stresses to move the bed grains than air flow; and (ii) under open channel flow, steep granular beds are more stable than beds with milder slopes. These two facts, together with recent direct measurements of forces acting on bed grains giving time-mean negative drags ( Schmeeckle et al. , 2007 ), question the conventional models of forces used so far. Here, fluid forces acting on bed particles are treated in a new way in order to take into consideration the fundamental interference effects, thus obtaining appropriate magnitude estimates that exhibit good agreement with direct force measurements by Schmeeckle et al. (2007) . Impulsive pressure fluctuations generated by turbulence are shown to be capable of dislodging the bed grains by saltation under air flow, whereas they can only produce a rocking effect under water flow, thus explaining the first anomaly. On the other hand, previous work by the authors allows a direct estimate of space averaged time-mean drag and lift forces exerted on bed grains. Both components have the same order of magnitude but, contrary to the common belief, the mean lift is downward, which provides an explanation for the second anomaly. Finally, spatial disturbances of pressure, both positive and negative, appear to generate maximum, persistent, local forces considerably greater than mean forces, thus allowing an explanation for the observed negative time-mean drag. A new formula for predicting incipient motion of sediment under open channel flow is derived, which incorporates all dynamically significant effects and gives very good agreement with observation for the entire range of bed slopes. 相似文献
19.
Christopher J. Stevenson Peter J. Talling Douglas G. Masson Esther J. Sumner Michael Frenz Russell B. Wynn 《Sedimentology》2014,61(4):1120-1156
Grain‐size breaks are surfaces where abrupt changes in grain size occur vertically within deposits. Grain‐size breaks are common features in turbidites around the world, including ancient and modern systems. Despite their widespread occurrence, grain‐size breaks have been regarded as exceptional, and not included within idealized models of turbidity current deposition. This study uses ca 100 shallow sediment cores, from the Moroccan Turbidite System, to map out five turbidite beds for distances in excess of 2000 km. The vertical and spatial distributions of grain‐size breaks within these beds are examined. Five different types of grain‐size break are found: Type I – in proximal areas between coarse sand and finer grained structureless sand; Type II – in proximal areas between inversely graded sand overlain by finer sand; Type III – in proximal areas between sand overlain by ripple cross‐laminated finer sand; Type IV – throughout the system between clean sand and mud; and Type V – in distal areas between mud‐rich (debrite) sand and mud. This article interprets Types I and V as being generated by sharp vertical concentration boundaries, controlled by sediment and clay concentrations within the flows, whilst Types II and III are interpreted as products of spatial/temporal fluctuations in flow capacity. Type IV are interpreted as the product of fluid mud layers, which hinder the settling of non‐cohesive grains and bypasses them down slope. Decelerating suspensions with sufficient clay will always form cohesive layers near to bed, promoting the generation of Type IV grain‐size breaks. This may explain why Type IV grain‐size breaks are widespread in all five turbidites examined and are commonplace within turbidite sequences studied elsewhere. Therefore, Type IV grain‐size breaks should be understood as the norm, not the exception, and regarded as a typical feature within turbidite beds. 相似文献
20.
Threshold of sediment motion under unidirectional currents 总被引：40，自引：1，他引：40
Carefully selected data for the threshold of sediment movement under unidirectional flow conditions have been utilized to re-examine the various empirical curves that are commonly employed to predict this threshold. After a review of the existing data, we employed only that data obtained from open channel flumes with parallel sidewalls where flows were uniform and steady over flattened beds of unigranular, rounded sediments. Without these restrictions, an unmanageable amount of scatter is introduced. This selected data is used to develop a modified Shields-type threshold diagram that extends the limits of the original diagram by three orders of magnitude in the grain-Reynolds number. The equally general but more easily employed Yalin diagram for sediment threshold is also examined. Although the Shields and Yalin diagrams are general in that they apply to a wide range of different liquids, in both cases somewhat different curves are obtained for threshold under air than for the liquids. The often used empirical curves of the friction velocity u*, the velocity 100 cm above the bed u100, the bottom stress θt, and Shields’ relative stress θt, all versus the grain diameter D, are limited in their ranges of application to certain combinations of grain density, fluid density, fluid viscosity and gravity. These conditions must be selected before the curves are generated from either the more general Shields or Yalin curves. For example, on the basis of the data selected for use in this paper, empirical threshold relationships for quartz density material in water are where the velocity u100 measured 100 cm above the sediment bed is given in cm/sec and the grain diameter D is in cm. The limitations on any of the threshold relationships are severe. These limitations should be properly understood so that the empirical curves and relationships are not improperly employed. 相似文献