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1.
Hypervelocity impact experiments on porous tuff targets were carried out to determine the effect of porosity on deformation mechanisms in the crater's subsurface. Blocks of Weibern Tuff with about 43% porosity were impacted by 2.5 mm and 12.0 mm diameter steel spheres with velocities between 4.8 km s?1 and 5.6 km s?1. The postimpact subsurface damage was quantified with computer tomography as well as with meso‐ and microscale analyses of the bisected crater subsurface. The intensity and style of deformation in mineral clasts and the tuff matrix were mapped and their decay with subsurface depth was determined. Subsurface deformation styles include pore space compaction, clast rotation, as well as microfracture formation. Evaluation of the deformation indicates near‐surface energy coupling at a calculated depth of burial of ~2 projectile diameters (dp), which is in conflict with the crater shape, which displays a deep, central penetration tube. Subsurface damage extends to ~2 dp beneath the crater floor in the experiments with 2.5 mm projectiles and increases to ~3 dp for 12 mm projectiles. Based on overprinting relationships and the geometrical orientation of deformation features, a sequence of subsurface deformation events was derived (1) matrix compaction, (2) intragranular crack formation in clasts, (3) deformation band formation in the compacted matrix, (4) tensile fracturing.  相似文献   

2.
To understand the process of cosmic dust particle impacts and translate crater morphology on smoothed metallic surfaces to dust properties, correct calibration of the experimental impact data is needed. This article presents the results of studies of crater morphology generated by impacts using micron‐sized polypyrrole (PPy)‐coated olivine particles. The particles were accelerated by an electrostatic dust accelerator to high speeds before they impacted onto polished aluminum targets. The projectile diameter and velocity ranges were 0.3–1.2 μm and 3–7 km s?1. After impact, stereopair images of the craters were taken using scanning electron microscope and 3‐D reconstructions made to provide diameter and depth measurements. In this study, not just the dimensions of crater diameters and depths, but also the shape and dimensions of crater lips were analyzed. The craters created by the coated olivine projectiles are shown to have complicated shapes believed to be due to the nonspherical shape of the projectiles.  相似文献   

3.
Some meteorites consist of a mix of components of various parent bodies that were presumably brought together by past collisions. Impact experiments have been performed to investigate the degree of target fragmentation during such collisions. However, much less attention has been paid to the fate of the impactors. Here, we report the results of our study of the empirical relationship between the degree of projectile fragmentation and the impact conditions. Millimeter‐sized pyrophyllite and basalt projectiles were impacted onto regolith‐like sand targets and an aluminum target at velocities of up to 960 m s?1. Experiments using millimeter‐sized pyrophyllite blocks as targets were also conducted to fill the gap between this study and the previous studies of centimeter‐sized rock targets. The catastrophic disruption threshold for a projectile is defined as the energy density at which the mass of the largest fragment is the half of the original mass. The thresholds with the sand target were 4.5 ± 1.1 × 104 and 9.0 ± 1.9 × 104 J kg?1, for pyrophyllite and basalt projectiles, respectively. These values are two orders of magnitude larger than the threshold for impacts between pyrophyllite projectiles onto aluminum targets, but are qualitatively consistent with the fact that the compressive and tensile strengths of basalt are larger than those of pyrophyllite. The threshold for pyrophyllite projectiles and the aluminum target agrees with the threshold for aluminum projectiles and pyrophyllite targets within the margin of error. Consistent with a previous result, the threshold depended on the size of the rocks with a power of approximately ?0.4 (Housen and Holsapple 1999). Destruction of rock projectiles occurred when the peak pressure was about ten times the tensile strength of the rocks.  相似文献   

4.
The SMART‐1 end‐of‐life impact with the lunar surface was simulated with impacts in a two stage light‐gas gun onto inclined basalt targets with a shallow surface layer of sand. This simulated the probable impact site, where a loose regolith will have overlaid a well consolidated basaltic layer of rock. The impact angles used were at 5° and 10° from the horizontal. The impact speed was ~2 km s?1 and the projectiles were 2.03 mm diameter aluminum spheres. The sand depth was between approximately 0.8 and 1.8 times the projectile diameter, implying a loose lunar surface regolith of similar dimensions to the SMART‐1 spacecraft. A crater in the basement rock itself was only observed in the impact at 10° incidence, and where the depth of loose surface material was less than the projectile diameter, in which case the basement rock also contained a small pit‐like crater. In all cases, the projectile ricocheted away from the impact site at a shallow angle. This implies that at the SMART‐1 impact site the crater will have a complicated structure, with exposed basement rock and some excavated rock displaced nearby, and the main spacecraft body itself will not be present at the main crater.  相似文献   

5.
Abstract– The MEMIN research unit (Multidisciplinary Experimental and Modeling Impact research Network) is focused on analyzing experimental impact craters and experimental cratering processes in geological materials. MEMIN is interested in understanding how porosity and pore space saturation influence the cratering process. Here, we present results of a series of impact experiments into porous wet and dry sandstone targets. Steel, iron meteorite, and aluminum projectiles ranging in size from 2.5 to 12 mm were accelerated to velocities of 2.5–7.8 km s?1, yielding craters with diameters between 3.9 and 40 cm. Results show that the target’s porosity reduces crater volumes and cratering efficiency relative to nonporous rocks. Saturation of pore space with water to 50% and 90% increasingly counteracts the effects of porosity, leading to larger but flatter craters. Spallation becomes more dominant in larger‐scale experiments and leads to an increase in cratering efficiency with increasing projectile size for constant impact velocities. The volume of spalled material is estimated using parabolic fits to the crater morphology, yielding approximations of the transient crater volume. For impacts at the same velocity these transient craters show a constant cratering efficiency that is not affected by projectile size.  相似文献   

6.
Abstract— Scaling laws describing crater dimensions are defined in terms of projectile velocity and mass, densities of the materials involved, strength of the target, and the local gravity. Here, the additional importance of target porosity and saturation, and an overlying water layer, are considered through 15 laboratory impacts of 1 mm diameter stainless steel projectiles at 5 km s?1 into a) an initially uncharacterized sandstone (porosity ?17%) and b) Coconino Sandstone (porosity ?23%). The higher‐porosity dry sandstone allows a crater to form with a larger diameter but smaller depth than in the lower‐porosity dry sandstone. Furthermore, for both porosities, a greater volume of material is excavated from a wet target than a dry target (by 27–30%). Comparison of our results with Pi‐scaling (dimensionless ratios of key parameters characterizing cratering data over a range of scales) suggests that porosity is important for scaling laws given that the new data lie significantly beneath the current fit for ice and rock targets on a πv versus π3 plot (πv gives cratering efficiency and π3 the influence of target strength). An overlying water layer results in a reduction of crater dimensions, with larger craters produced in the saturated targets compared to unsaturated targets. A water depth of approximately 12 times the projectile diameter is required before craters are no longer observed in the targets. Previous experimental studies have shown that this ratio varies between 10 and 20 (Gault and Sonett 1982). In our experiments ?25% of the original projectile mass survives the impact.  相似文献   

7.
We present results of FIB–TEM studies of 12 Stardust analog Al foil craters which were created by firing refractory Si and Ti carbide and nitride grains into Al foils at 6.05 km s?1 with a light‐gas gun to simulate capture of cometary grains by the Stardust mission. These foils were prepared primarily to understand the low presolar grain abundances (both SiC and silicates) measured by SIMS in Stardust Al foil samples. Our results demonstrate the intact survival of submicron SiC, TiC, TiN, and less‐refractory Si3N4 grains. In small (<2 μm) craters that are formed by single grain impacts, the entire impacting crystalline grain is often preserved intact with minimal modification. While they also survive in crystalline form, grains at the bottom of larger craters (>5 μm) are typically fragmented and are somewhat flattened in the direction of impact due to partial melting and/or plastic deformation. The low presolar grain abundance estimates derived from SIMS measurements of large craters (mostly >50 μm) likely result from greater modification of these impactors (i.e., melting and isotopic dilution), due to higher peak temperatures/pressures in these crater impacts. The better survivability of grains in smaller craters suggests that more accurate presolar grain estimates may be achievable through measurement of such craters. It also suggests small craters can provide a complementary method of study of the Wild 2 fine fraction, especially for refractory CAI‐like minerals.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract– This study deals with the investigation of highly dynamic processes associated with hypervelocity impacts on porous sandstone. For the impact experiments, two light‐gas accelerators with different calibers were used, capable of accelerating steel projectiles with diameters ranging from 2.5 to 12 mm to several kilometers per second. The projectiles impacted on dry and water‐saturated Seeberger Sandstone targets. The study includes investigations of the influence of pore water on the shape of the ejecta cloud as well as transient crater growth. The results show a significant influence of pore water on ejecta behavior. Steeper ejecta cone angles are observed if the impacts are conducted on wet sandstones. The transient crater grows at a faster rate and reaches a larger diameter if the target is water saturated. In our experiments, target porosity leads to smaller crater sizes compared with nonporous targets. Water within the pore space reduces porosity and counteracts this process. Power law fits were applied to the crater growth curves. The results show an increase in the scaling exponent μ with increasing pore space saturation.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract— Metallic aluminum alloy foils exposed on the forward, comet‐facing surface of the aerogel tray on the Stardust spacecraft are likely to have been impacted by the same cometary particle population as the dedicated impact sensors and the aerogel collector. The ability of soft aluminum alloy to record hypervelocity impacts as bowl‐shaped craters offers an opportunistic substrate for recognition of impacts by particles of a potentially wide size range. In contrast to impact surveys conducted on samples from low Earth orbit, the simple encounter geometry for Stardust and Wild‐2, with a known and constant spacecraft‐particle relative velocity and effective surface‐perpendicular impact trajectories, permits closely comparable simulation in laboratory experiments. For a detailed calibration program, we have selected a suite of spherical glass projectiles of uniform density and hardness characteristics, with well‐documented particle size range from 10 μm to nearly 100 μm. Light gas gun buckshot firings of these particles at approximately 6 km s?1 onto samples of the same foil as employed on Stardust have yielded large numbers of craters. Scanning electron microscopy of both projectiles and impact features has allowed construction of a calibration plot, showing a linear relationship between impacting particle size and impact crater diameter. The close match between our experimental conditions and the Stardust mission encounter parameters should provide another opportunity to measure particle size distributions and fluxes close to the nucleus of Wild‐2, independent of the active impact detector instruments aboard the Stardust spacecraft.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract— The known encounter velocity (6.1 kms?1) and particle incidence angle (perpendicular) between the Stardust spacecraft and the dust emanating from the nucleus of comet Wild‐2 fall within a range that allows simulation in laboratory light‐gas gun (LGG) experiments designed to validate analytical methods for the interpretation of dust impacts on the aluminum foil components of the Stardust collector. Buckshot of a wide size, shape, and density range of mineral, glass, polymer, and metal grains, have been fired to impact perpendicularly on samples of Stardust Al 1100 foil, tightly wrapped onto aluminum alloy plate as an analogue of foil on the spacecraft collector. We have not yet been able to produce laboratory impacts by projectiles with weak and porous aggregate structure, as may occur in some cometary dust grains. In this report we present information on crater gross morphology and its dependence on particle size and density, the pre‐existing major‐ and trace‐element composition of the foil, geometrical issues for energy dispersive X‐ray analysis of the impact residues in scanning electron microscopes, and the modification of dust chemical composition during creation of impact craters as revealed by analytical transmission electron microscopy. Together, these observations help to underpin the interpretation of size, density, and composition for particles impacted on the Stardust aluminum foils.  相似文献   

11.
Hypervelocity impacts occur on bodies throughout our solar system, and play an important role in altering the mineralogy, texture, and magnetic properties in target rocks at nanometer to planetary scales. Here we present the results of hypervelocity impact experiments conducted using a two-stage light-gas gun with 5 mm spherical copper projectiles accelerated toward basalt targets with ~6 km s−1 impact velocities. Four different types of magnetite- and titanomagnetite-bearing basalts were used as targets for seven independent experiments. These laboratory impacts resulted in the formation of agglutinate-like particles similar in texture to lunar agglutinates, which are an important fraction of lunar soil. Materials recovered from the impacts were examined using a suite of complementary techniques, including optical and scanning electron microscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and high- and low-temperature magnetometry, to investigate the texture, chemistry, and magnetic properties of newly formed agglutinate-like particles and were compared to unshocked basaltic parent materials. The use of Cu-projectiles, rather than Fe- and Ni-projectiles, avoids magnetic contamination in the final shock products and enables a clearer view of the magnetic properties of impact-generated agglutinates. Agglutinate-like particles show shock features, such as melting and planar deformation features, and demonstrate shock-induced magnetic hardening (two- to seven-fold increases in the coercivity of remanence Bcr compared to the initial target materials) and decreases in low-field magnetic susceptibility and saturation magnetization.  相似文献   

12.
Many bodies in the outer solar system are theorized to have an ice shell with a different subsurface material below, be it chondritic, regolith, or a subsurface ocean. This layering can have a significant influence on the morphology of impact craters. Accordingly, we have undertaken laboratory hypervelocity impact experiments on a range of multilayered targets, with interiors of water, sand, and basalt. Impact experiments were undertaken using impact speeds in the range of 0.8–5.3 km s?1, a 1.5 mm Al ball bearing projectile, and an impact incidence of 45°. The surface ice crust had a thickness between 5 and 50 mm, i.e., some 3–30 times the projectile diameter. The thickness of the ice crust as well as the nature of the subsurface layer (liquid, well consolidated, etc.) have a marked effect on the morphology of the resulting impact crater, with thicker ice producing a larger crater diameter (at a given impact velocity), and the crater diameter scaling with impact speed to the power 0.72 for semi‐infinite ice, but with 0.37 for thin ice. The density of the subsurface material changes the structure of the crater, with flat crater floors if there is a dense, well‐consolidated subsurface layer (basalt) or steep, narrow craters if there is a less cohesive subsurface (sand). The associated faulting in the ice surface is also dependent on ice thickness and the substrate material. We find that the ice layer (in impacts at 5 km s?1) is effectively semi‐infinite if its thickness is more than 15.5 times the projectile diameter. Below this, the crater diameter is reduced by 4% for each reduction in ice layer thickness equal to the impactor diameter. Crater depth is also affected. In the ice thickness region, 7–15.5 times the projectile diameter, the crater shape in the ice is modified even when the subsurface layer is not penetrated. For ice thicknesses, <7 times the projectile diameter, the ice layer is breached, but the nature of the resulting crater depends heavily on the subsurface material. If the subsurface is noncohesive (loose) material, a crater forms in it. If it is dense, well‐consolidated basalt, no crater forms in the exposed subsurface layer.  相似文献   

13.
We experimentally studied the formation and collapse processes of transient craters. Polycarbonate projectiles with mass of 0.49 g were impacted into the soda-lime glass sphere target (mean diameters of glass spheres are ∼36, 72, and 220 μm, respectively) using a single-stage light-gas gun. Impact velocity ranged from 11 to 329 m s−1. We found that the transient crater collapses even at laboratory scales. The shape (diameter and depth) of the transient crater differs from that of the final crater. The depth-rim diameter ratios of the final and transient craters are 0.11-0.14 and 0.26-0.27, respectively. The rim diameter of both the transient and final crater depends on target material properties; however, the ratio of final to transient crater diameter does not. This suggests that target material properties affect the formation process of transient craters even in the gravity regime, and must be taken into account when scaling experimental results to planetary scales. By observing impacts into glass sphere targets, we show that although the early stage of the excavation flow does not depend on the target material properties, the radial expansion of the cavity after the end of vertical expansion does. This suggests that the effect of target material properties is specifically important in the later part of the crater excavation and collapse.  相似文献   

14.
We report results of an interdisciplinary project devoted to the 26 km‐diameter Ries crater and to the genesis of suevite. Recent laboratory analyses of “crater suevite” occurring within the central crater basin and of “outer suevite” on top of the continuous ejecta blanket, as well as data accumulated during the past 50 years, are interpreted within the boundary conditions imposed by a comprehensive new effort to model the crater formation and its ejecta deposits by computer code calculations (Artemieva et al. 2013). The properties of suevite are considered on all scales from megascopic to submicroscopic in the context of its geological setting. In a new approach, we reconstruct the minimum/maximum volumes of all allochthonous impact formations (108/116 km3), of suevite (14/22 km3), and the total volume of impact melt (4.9/8.0 km3) produced by the Ries impact event prior to erosion. These volumes are reasonably compatible with corresponding values obtained by numerical modeling. Taking all data on modal composition, texture, chemistry, and shock metamorphism of suevite, and the results of modeling into account, we arrive at a new empirical model implying five main consecutive phases of crater formation and ejecta emplacement. Numerical modeling indicates that only a very small fraction of suevite can be derived from the “primary ejecta plume,” which is possibly represented by the fine‐grained basal layer of outer suevite. The main mass of suevite was deposited from a “secondary plume” induced by an explosive reaction (“fuel‐coolant interaction”) of impact melt with water and volatile‐rich sedimentary rocks within a clast‐laden temporary melt pool. Both melt pool and plume appear to be heterogeneous in space and time. Outer suevite appears to be derived from an early formed, melt‐rich and clast‐poor plume region rich in strongly shocked components (melt ? clasts) and originating from an upper, more marginal zone of the melt pool. Crater suevite is obviously deposited from later formed, clast‐rich and melt‐poor plumes dominated by unshocked and weakly shocked clasts and derived from a deeper, central zone of the melt pool. Genetically, we distinguish between “primary suevite” which includes dike suevite, the lower sublayer of crater suevite, and possibly a basal layer of outer suevite, and “secondary suevite” represented by the massive upper sublayer of crater suevite and the main mass of outer suevite.  相似文献   

15.
Abstract— On Earth, oceanic impacts are twice as likely to occur as continental impacts, yet the effect of the oceans has not been previously considered when estimating the terrestrial crater size‐frequency distribution. Despite recent progress in understanding the qualitative and quantitative effect of a water layer on the impact process through novel laboratory experiments, detailed numerical modeling, and interpretation of geological and geophysical data, no definitive relationship between impactor properties, water depth, and final crater diameter exists. In this paper, we determine the relationship between final (and transient) crater diameter and the ratio of water depth to impactor diameter using the results of numerical impact models. This relationship applies for normal incidence impacts of stoney asteroids into water‐covered, crystalline oceanic crust at a velocity of 15 km s?1. We use these relationships to construct the first estimates of terrestrial crater size‐frequency distributions (over the last 100 million years) that take into account the depth‐area distribution of oceans on Earth. We find that the oceans reduce the number of craters smaller than 1 km in diameter by about two‐thirds, the number of craters ?30 km in diameter by about one‐third, and that for craters larger than ?100 km in diameter, the oceans have little effect. Above a diameter of ?12 km, more craters occur on the ocean floor than on land; below this diameter more craters form on land than in the oceans. We also estimate that there have been in the region of 150 impact events in the last 100 million years that formed an impact‐related resurge feature, or disturbance on the seafloor, instead of a crater.  相似文献   

16.
Mg‐rich olivine is a ubiquitous phase in type I porphyritic chondrules in various classes of chondritic meteorites. The anhedral shape of olivine grains, their size distribution, as well as their poikilitic textures within low‐Ca pyroxene suggest that olivines suffer dissolution during chondrule formation. Owing to a set of high‐temperature experiments (1450–1540 °C) we determined the kinetics of resorption of forsterite in molten silicates, using for the first time X‐ray microtomography. Results indicate that forsterite dissolution in chondrule‐like melts is a very fast process with rates that range from ~5 μm min?1 to ~22 μm min?1. Forsterite dissolution strongly depends on the melt composition, with rates decreasing with increasing the magnesium and/or the silica content of the melt. An empirical model based on forsterite saturation and viscosity of the starting melt composition successfully reproduces the forsteritic olivine dissolution rates as a function of temperature and composition for both our experiments and those of the literature. Application of our results to chondrules could explain the textures of zoned type I chondrules during their formation by gas‐melt interaction. We show that the olivine/liquid ratio on one hand and the silica entrance from the gas phase (SiOg) into the chondrule melt on the other hand, have counteracting effects on the Mg‐rich olivine dissolution behavior. Silica entrance would favor dissolution by maintaining disequilibrium between olivine and melt. Hence, this would explain the preferential dissolution of olivine as well as the preferential abundances of pyroxene at the margins of chondrules. Incipient dissolution would also occur in the silica‐poorer melt of chondrule core but should be followed by crystallization of new olivine (overgrowth and/or newly grown crystals). While explaining textures and grain size distributions of olivines, as well as the centripetal distribution of low‐Ca pyroxene in porphyritic chondrules, this scenario could also be consistent with the diverse chemical, isotopic, and thermal conditions recorded by olivines in a given chondrule.  相似文献   

17.
Abstract– Planetary surfaces are subjected to meteorite bombardment and crater formation. Rocks forming these surfaces are often porous and contain fluids. To understand the role of both parameters on impact cratering, we conducted laboratory experiments with dry and wet sandstone blocks impacted by centimeter‐sized steel spheres. We utilized a 40 m two‐stage light‐gas gun to achieve impact velocities of up to 5.4 km s?1. Cratering efficiency, ejection velocities, and spall volume are enhanced if the pore space of the sandstone is filled with water. In addition, the crater morphologies differ substantially from wet to dry targets, i.e., craters in wet targets are larger, but shallower. We report on the effects of pore water on the excavation flow field and the degree of target damage. We suggest that vaporization of water upon pressure release significantly contributes to the impact process.  相似文献   

18.
Abstract– A Devonian siltstone from Orkney, Scotland, shows survival of biomarkers in high‐velocity impact experiments. The biomarkers were detected in ejecta fragments from experiments involving normal incidence of steel projectiles at 5–6 km s?1, and in projectile fragments from impact experiments into sand and water at 2–5 km s?1. The associated peak shock pressures were calculated to be in the range of 110–147 GPa for impacts of the steel projectiles into the siltstone target, and hydrocode simulations are used to show the variation of peak pressure with depth in the target and throughout the finite volume projectiles. Thermally sensitive biomarker ratios, including ratios of hopanoids and steranes, and the methylphenanthrene ratio, showed an increase in thermal maturity in the ejecta, and especially the projectile, fragments. Measurement of absolute concentrations of selected biomarkers indicates that changes in biomarker ratios reflect synthesis of new material rather than selective destruction. Their presence in ejecta and projectile fragments suggests that fossil biomarkers may survive hypervelocity impacts, and that experiments using biomarker‐rich rock have high potential for testing survival of organic matter in a range of impact scenarios.  相似文献   

19.
The Morasko strewn field located near Poznań, Poland comprises seven impact craters with diameters ranging from 20 to 90 m, all of which were formed in glacial sediments around 5000 yr ago. Numerous iron meteorites have been recovered in the area and their distribution suggests a projectile with the trajectory from NE to SW. Similar impact events producing crater strewn fields on average happen every 500 yr and pose a serious risk for modern civilization, which is why it is of utmost importance to study terrestrial strewn fields in detail. In this work, we investigate the Morasko meteoroid passage through the atmosphere, the distribution of its fragments on the ground, and the process of forming individual craters by means of numerical modeling. By combining atmospheric entry modeling, Pi‐group scaling of transient crater size and hydrocode simulations of impact processes, we constructed a comprehensive model of the Morasko strewn field formation. We determined the preatmospheric parameters of the Morasko meteoroid. The entry mass is between 600 and 1100 tons, the velocity range is between 16 and 18 km s?1, and the trajectory angle is 30–40°. Such entry velocities and trajectory angles do not deviate from typical values for near‐Earth asteroids, although the initial mass we determined can be considered as small. Our studies on velocities and masses of crater‐forming fragments showed that the biggest Morasko crater was formed by a projectile about 1.5 m in diameter with the impact velocity ~10 km s?1. Environmental consequences of the Morasko impact event are very localized.  相似文献   

20.
Abstract– The extra‐large light‐gas gun (XLLGG) at the Fraunhofer Ernst‐Mach‐Institut (EMI, Efringen‐Kirchen, Germany) is a two‐stage light‐gas gun that can accelerate projectile masses of up to 100 g up to velocities of 6 km s?1. The accelerator’s set‐up allows various combinations of pump and launch tubes for applications in different fields of hypervelocity impact research. In the framework of the MEMIN (Multidisciplinary Experimental and Modeling Impact Research Network) program, the XLLGG is used for mesoscale cratering experiments with projectiles made of steel and of iron meteorites, and targets consisting of sandstone and other rocks. The craters produced with this equipment reach a diameter of up to 40 cm, a size unique in laboratory cratering research. With the implementation of neural networks, the acceleration process is being optimized, currently yielding peak velocities of 7.8 km s?1 for a 100 g projectile. Here, we summarize technical aspects of the XLLGG.  相似文献   

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