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1.
How to accurately simulate the distribution of forest species based upon their biological attributes has been a traditional biogeographical issue.Forest gap models are very useful tools for examining the dynamics of forest succession and revealing the species structure of vegetation.In the present study,the GFSM（Gongga Forest Succession Model） was developed and applied to simulate the distribution,composition and succession process of forests in 100 m elevation intervals.The results indicate that the simulated results of the tree species,quantities of the different types of trees,tree age and differences in DBH（diameter at breast height） composition were in line with the actual situation from 1400 to 3700 MASL（meters above sea level） on the eastern slope of Mt.Gongga.Moreover,the dominant species in the simulated results were the same as those in the surveyed database.Thus,the GFSM model can best simulate the features of forest dynamics and structure in the natural conditions of Mt.Gongga.The work provides a new approach to studying the structure and distribution characteristics of mountain ecosystems in varied elevations.Moreover,the results of this study suggest that the biogeochemistry mechanism model should be combined with the forestsuccession model to facilitate the ecological model in simulating the physical and chemical processes involved.  相似文献   

2.
Global climate change is having long-term impacts on the geographic distribution of forest species. However, the response of vertical belts of mountain forests to climate change is still little known. The vertical distribution of forest vegetation(vertical vegetation belt) on Gongga Mountain in Southwest China has been monitored for 30 years. The forest alternation of the vertical vegetation belt under different climate conditions was simulated by using a mathematical model GFSM(the Gongga Forest Succession Model). Three possible Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) climate scenarios(increase of air temperature and precipitation by 1.8℃/5%, 2.8℃/10% and 3.4℃/15% for B_1, A_1B and A_2 scenarios, respectively) were chosen to reflect lower, medium and higher changes of global climate. The vertical belts of mountainous vegetation will shift upward by approximately 300 m, 500 m and 600 m in the B_1, A_1B and A_2 scenarios, respectively, according to the simulated results. Thus, the alpine tree-line will move to a higher altitude. The simulation also demonstrated that, in a changing climate, the shift in the vegetation community will be a slow and extended process characterized by two main phases. During the initial phase, trees of the forest community degrade or die, owing to an inability to adapt to a warmer climate. This results in modest environment for the introduction of opportunistic species, consequently, the vegetation with new dominant tree species becomes predominant in the space vacated by the dead trees at the expense of previously dominated original trees as the succession succeed and climate change advance. Hence, the global climate change would dramatically change forest communities and tree species in mountainous regions because that the new forest community can grow only through the death of the original tree. Results indicated that climate change will cause the change of distribution and composition of forest communities on Gongga Mountain, and this change may enhance as the intensity of climate change increases. As a result, the alternation of death and rebirth would finally result in intensive landscape changes, and may strongly affect the eco-environment of mountainous regions.  相似文献   

3.
Gongga Mountain, locates on the eastern edge of Tibetan Plateau of China, is the highest mountain in China except summits in Tibet. Only limited meteorological data on Gongga Mountain have been published so far. Here we present the meteorological records from two stations, Moxi Station (at 1,621.7 m above sea level (a.s.l.), 1992–2010) and Hailuogou Station (at 2,947.8 m a.s.l., 1988–2010), on the eastern slope of Gongga Mountain. In the past two decades, the annual precipitation decreased while the annual mean temperature increased at Hailuogou Station. Both precipitation and temperature increased at Moxi Station. The precipitation variation on the eastern slope of Gongga Mountain is influenced by both East Asian Monsoon and Indian Monsoon, so that the precipitation concentrated between May and October. The temperature variation on the eastern slope of Gongga Mountain in the past two decades showed similar trends as that of the northern hemispheric and global. In the past two decades, the temperature increased 0.35°C and 0.3°C/decade at Hailuogou Station and Moxi Station respectively, which was higher than the increase extents of northern hemispheric and global temperature. The most intense warming occurred at the first decade of 21st century. The winter temperature increased more at Hailuogou Station than at Moxi Station. A remarkable increase of temperature in March was observed with only a little precipitation at both high and low altitude stations.  相似文献   

4.
Analyzing and understanding the structure and growth dynamics of forests at different stages is helpful to promote forest succession, restoration and management. Three spots representing three succession stages of spruce-fir mixed forest(SF: polar-birch secondary forest, MF: spruce-fir mixed forest and PF: spruce-fir near primary forest) were established. Structure, growth dynamics during two growth seasons for dominant tree species, regeneration were examined, and a univariate O-ring function statistic was used to analyze the spatial patterns of main regeneration tree species. Results showed that,(1) composition of tree species, periodic annual increment(PAI) of the diameter at breast height(DBH), basal area for overstory trees and of ground diameter(DGH) for saplings, were significantly different with the succession;(2) the current species composition and regeneration dynamics of SF suggested a development towards spruce-fir mixed forests. Pioneer species like Betula platyphyllaa will gradually disappear while climax species, such as Abies nephrolepis, Pinus koraiensis, Picea koraiensis and Tilia amurensis will dominate forest stands;(3) Despite the highest volume occurring in PF, and saplings in it grew better than in the others, this forest type is unstable because of its unsustainable structure of DBH class and insufficient regeneration; and(4) MF had the most reasonable distribution of DBH class for adult trees(DBH 5.0 cm) and DGH class for saplings(H ≥30 cm and DBH ≤5 cm), as well as an optimal volume increment. Limiting canopy opening size can lessen the physiological stress and promote the growth and competitive status of regeneration. Management implications for increasing the gaps and thus creating better growth conditions for understory saplings and facilitating forest succession were discussed.  相似文献   

5.
European larch(Larix decidua) forests of the western Alps form extensivecultural landscapes whose resilience to global changes is currently unknown. Resilience describes the capacity of ecological systems to maintain the same state, i.e., the same function, processes, structure, and composition despite disturbances, environmental changes and internal fluctuations. Our aim is to explore the resilience of larch forests to changes in climate and land use in the western Italian Alps.To do so, we examined whether larch forests can be described as an alternative stable state in mountain forest ecosystems. We used tree basal area data obtained from field forest inventories in combination with topography, forest structure, land use, and climate information. We applied three different probabilistic methods: frequency distributions, logistic regressions, and potential analyses to infer the resilience of larch forests relative to that of other forest types.We found patters indicative of alternative stable states: bimodality in the frequency distribution of the percent of larch basal area, and the presence of an unstable state, i.e., mixed larch forests, in the potential analyses. We also found:(1) high frequency ofpurelarchforestsathighelevation,(2)the probability of pure larch forests increased mostly with elevation, and(3) pure larch forests were a stable state in the upper montane and subalpine belts.Our study shows that the resilience of larch forests may increase with elevation, most likely due to the altitudinal effect on climate. Under the same climate conditions, land use seems to be the main factor governing the dominance of larch forests. In fact, subalpine larch forests may be more resilient, and natural succession after land abandonment, e.g., towards Pinuscembra forests, seems slower than in montane larch forests. In contrast, in the upper montane belt only intense land use regimes characterized by open canopies and forest grazing may maintain larch forests.We conclude that similar approaches could be applied in other forest ecosystems to infer the resilience of tree species.  相似文献   

6.
European larch (Larix decidua) forests of the western Alps form extensive cultural landscapes whose resilience to global changes is currently unknown. Resilience describes the capacity of ecological systems to maintain the same state, i.e., the same function, processes, structure, and composition despite disturbances, environmental changes and internal fluctuations. Our aim is to explore the resilience of larch forests to changes in climate and land use in the western Italian Alps. To do so, we examined whether larch forests can be described as an alternative stable state in mountain forest ecosystems. We used tree basal area data obtained from field forest inventories in combination with topography, forest structure, land use, and climate information. We applied three different probabilistic methods: frequency distributions, logistic regressions, and potential analyses to infer the resilience of larch forests relative to that of other forest types. We found patters indicative of alternative stable states: bimodality in the frequency distribution of the percent of larch basal area, and the presence of an unstable state, i.e., mixed larch forests, in the potential analyses. We also found: (1) high frequency of pure larch forests at high elevation, (2) the probability of pure larch forests increased mostly with elevation, and (3) pure larch forests were a stable state in the upper montane and subalpine belts. Our study shows that the resilience of larch forests may increase with elevation, most likely due to the altitudinal effect on climate. Under the same climate conditions, land use seems to be the main factor governing the dominance of larch forests. In fact, subalpine larch forests may be more resilient, and natural succession after land abandonment, e.g., towards Pinus cembra forests, seems slower than in montane larch forests. In contrast, in the upper montane belt only intense land use regimes characterized by open canopies and forest grazing may maintain larch forests. We conclude that similar approaches could be applied in other forest ecosystems to infer the resilience of tree species.  相似文献   

7.
Little is known about whether soil microbial population dynamics are correlated with forest succession.To test the hypotheses that(1) soil microbial composition changes over successional stages,and(2) soil microbial diversity is positively correlated with plant species diversity,we determined the soil microbial populations,community composition,and microflora diversity in evergreen broad-leaved forests along a chronosequence of vegetation succession from 5 to 300 years in southwestern China.The soil microbi...  相似文献   

8.
Broadleaf-Korean pine forests exhibit high species richness and distinctive species composition, which are currently becoming more dominant among natural forests in Changbai Mountains of northeastern China. Understanding the ecological process of restored vegetation is quite important for ecosystem reconstruction. Distinguishing stand development stages and analyzing the dynamic spatial patterns could provide insights into significant community coexistence mechanisms. In the present study, eight permanent study areas were established according to the substituting space for time method in Changbai Mountains of north-eastern China. The optimal division method was used to quantify the successional series into different stand development stages, and the point pattern analysis method(L(r) function) was used to analyse the dynamic changes in spatial patterns and interspecific associations. Our results suggested that:(1) The stand development process was divided into five stages: the first three stages were poplar-birch secondary forests in different stages of recovery, the fourth stage was thespruce-fir mixed forest, and the last stage was the primary broadleaf-Korean pine forest;(2) The spatial pattern showed an aggregated distribution at a small scale and changed to a random distribution as the scale increased in poplar-birch secondary forests, but the spatial pattern appeared to be randomly distributed in spruce-fir mixed forest and broadleafKorean pine forest;(3) The interspecific associations between pioneer species and climax species changed from negative to positive among the different stand stages, and environmental resources were shared among these species. Interspecific differences in shade tolerance among the tree species were key determinants of forest dynamics and structure. Our study is vital to the understanding of the forest development; thus, the spatial change features should receive greater attention when forest management is being planned and restoration strategies are being developed for the Changbai Mountains.  相似文献   

9.
Introduction Tropical region is endowed with a vast tract of diverse vegetation (Gentry 1992). Among different types of forests, the montane forests, due to their unique features including rich biodiversity andprominent ecological services, have always attracted biologists, bio-geographers, ecologists and forest managers (Doumenge et al. 1995). In India, montane forests covering 7.9 % of total forest area occur in the Himalayan, northeastern and southern parts of the country (Lal 1989). In s…  相似文献   

10.
The Natural Forest Protection(NFP) program is one of the Six Key Forestry Projects which were adopted by the Chinese Government since the 1980s to address important natural issues in China. It advanced to protecting and restoring the structures and functions of the natural forests through sustainable forest management. However, the role of forest carbon storage and tree carbon pool dynamics since the adoption of the NFP remains unknown. To address this knowledge gap, this study calculated forest carbon storage(tree, understory, forest floor and soil) in the forest region of northeastern(NE) China based on National Forest Inventory databases and field investigated databases. For tree biomass, this study utilized an improved method for biomass estimation that converts timber volume to total forest biomass; while for understory, forest floor and soil carbon storage, this study utilized forest type-specific mean carbon densities multiplied by their areas in the region. Results showed that the tree carbon pool under the NFP in NE China functioned as a carbon sink from 1998 to 2008, with an increase of 6.3 Tg C/yr, which was mainly sequestrated by natural forests(5.1 Tg C/yr). At the same time, plantations also acted as a carbon sink, reflecting an increase of 1.2 Tg C/yr. In 2008, total carbon storage in forests covered by the NFP in NE China was 4603.8 Tg C, of which 4393.3 Tg C was stored in natural forests and 210.5 Tg C in planted forests. Soil was the largest carbon storage component, contributing 69.5%–77.8% of total carbon storage; followed by tree and forest floor, accounting for 16.3%–23.0% and 5.0%–6.5% of total carbon storage, respectively. Understory carbon pool ranged from 1.9 to 42.7 Tg C, accounting for only 0.9% of total carbon storage.  相似文献   

11.
New terrestrial habitats have emerged and a primary succession has developed in the retreat area(29°34'N, 102°00'E, 2951–2886 m) after the retreat of the Hailuogou glacier. To investigate soil microbial changes along the primary successional chronosequence, mixed soil samples were collected at six sites at different ages(2 young sites, 2 mid-aged sites, and 2 old sites). The RNA was extracted and amplified. Bacterial 16 S r RNA and fungal 18 S r RNA were analyzed using high-throughput 454 pyrosequencing analysis. Overall, pyrosequencing showed that Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria were the main bacterial phyla, and the fungal communities were strongly dominated by the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in the retreat area. The Shannon diversity index(Hshannon) of bacteria was 6.5 – 7.9, and that of fungi was 2.2 – 4.1 in these sites. For the bacterial communities, diversity and evenness values were highest on the mid-age sites and wererelatively low on the young and old sites. A similar trend was observed for the fungal communities. In contrast, soil properties showed significant linear distributional trends(increase or decrease) with the age of the site. Combining the linear change patterns of soil properties, the highest values of bacterial and fungal evenness and diversity in the mid-aged sites indicated that there was less environmental stress and more niches for microbial communities in the middle successional stage compare with other stages. In addition, our analysis showed that microbial communities were the main drivers that build a soil organic matter pool to expedite pedogenesis for ecosystem succession. This primary succession in the Hailuogou glacier retreat area is developing rapidly compared with that in other glacier retreats.  相似文献   

12.
Subalpine forests are known as outstanding habitats due to co-existence of both temperate and alpine vegetation and are classic example of ecotonal zones. Limited but diverse physiognomy of trees inhabiting in subalpine forest results in variability within under-canopy habitat conditions. Studies were undertaken to assess population status, habitat preference and interferences to the trees and associated undercanopy herbs in a subalpine forest of western Himalaya. A total of 10 woody and 23 under-canopy herbs were recorded in the selected subalpine forest area. At each stand, the number of tree species and under-canopy herbs ranged from 2 to 4 and 8 to 10 respectively. Abies spectabilis, Acer caesium, Quercus floribunda, Q. semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum were key tree species in this area. The density of main woody species was 280 to 1190 individuals ha-1 at different stands. Herbaceous plants with rosette and clump growth habits were observed to have higher values for total basal cover and importance value index. Presence of some undercanopy herbs like; Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Malaxis muscifera, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Polygonatumcirrhifolium and Skimmia laureola in the specific habitats also showed that they are habitat specific.However, the presence of Frageria nubicola and Viola sp. was common in the selected stands. Felling of trees for timber, construction of temporary huts,fuel wood and lopping for fodder were main interferences for trees. On the other hand, trampling driven damage due to grazing, habitats degradation and overexploitation were observed key threats for under-canopy herbs. Integrated analysis including population studies, habitats preference and interferences to the trees and under-canopy herbs in this sensitive and important ecosystem will be useful for determining the conservation plans and ecosystem management.  相似文献   

13.
We developed a vegetation geo-climatic zonation incorporating the zonal concept, gradient and discriminant analysis in Wasatch Range, northern Utah, USA. Mountainous forest ecosystems were sampled and described by vegetation, physiographic features and soil properties. The Snowpack Telemetry and National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program weather station networks were used to approximate the climate of sample plots. We analysed vegetation and environmental data using clustering, ordination, classification, and ANOVA techniques to reveal environmental gradients affecting a broad vegetation pattern and discriminate these gradients. The specific objective was to assess and classify the response of the complex vegetation to those environmental factors operating at a coarse-scale climatic level. Ordination revealed the dominant role of regional, altitude-based climate in the area. Based on vegetation physiognomy, represented by five tree species, climatic data and taxonomic classification of zonal soils, we identified two vegetation geo-climatic zones： （1） a montane zone, with Rocky Mountain juniper and Douglas-fir; and （2） a subalpine zone, with Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir as climatic climax species. Aspen was excluded from the zonation due to its great ecological amplitude. We found significant differences between the zones in regional climate and landformgeomorphology/soils. Regional climate was represented by elevation, precipitation, and air and soil temperatures; and geomorphology by soil types. This coarsescale vegetation geo-climatic zonation provides a framework for a comprehensive ecosystem survey, which is missing in the central Rocky Mountains of the United States. The vegetationgeoclimatic zonation represents a conceptual improvement on earlier classifications. This framework explicitly accounts for the influence of the physical environment on the distribution of vegetation within a complex landscape typical of the central Rocky Mountains and in mountain ranges elsewhere.  相似文献   

14.
The effects of reforestation on carbon(C) sequestration in China′s Loess Plateau ecosystem have attracted much research attention in recent years. Black locust trees(Robinia pseudoacacia L.) are valued for their important use in reforestation and water and soil conservation efforts. This forest type is widespread across the Loess Plateau, and must be an essential component of any planning for C sequestration efforts in this fragile ecological region. The long-term effects of stand age on C accumulation and allocation after reforestation remains uncertain. We examined an age-sequence of black locust forest(5, 9, 20, 30, 38, and 56 yr since planting) on the Loess Plateau to evaluate C accumulation and allocation in plants(trees, shrubs, herbages, and leaf litter) and soil(0–100 cm). Allometric equations were developed for estimating the biomass of tree components(leaf, branch, stem without bark, bark and root) with a destructive sampling method. Our results demonstrated that black locust forest ecosystem accumulated C constantly, from 31.42 Mg C/ ha(1 Mg = 10~6 g) at 5 yr to 79.44 Mg C/ha at 38 yr. At the ′old forest′ stage(38 to 56 yr), the amount of C in plant biomass significantly decreased(from 45.32 to 34.52 Mg C/ha) due to the high mortality of trees. However, old forest was able to accumulate C continuously in soil(from 33.66 to 41.00 Mg C/ha). The C in shrub biomass increased with stand age, while the C stock in the herbage layer and leaf litter was age-independent. Reforestation resulted in C re-allocation in the forest soil. The topsoil(0–20 cm) C stock increased constantly with stand age. However, C storage in sub-top soil, in the 20–30, 30–50, 50–100, and 20–100 cm layers, was age-independent. These results suggest that succession, as a temporal factor, plays a key role in C accumulation and re-allocation in black locust forests and also in regional C dynamics in vegetation.  相似文献   

15.
To understand the impacts of reforestation on woody species composition, species diversity and community structure, seven plantation forests in dry-hot valley of the Jinsha River in Southwest China were investigated, with adjacent wastelands, natural shrub grassland and a natural forest as references. Species importance value, species richness, species heterogeneity and Sorenson similarity index between plantations and the natural forest were analyzed. Results indicated that compared to wastelands and natural shrub grassland, reforestation improved species diversity and community structure, and more forest woody species found suitable habitats in plantations. Species diversity in understory of plantations and Sorenson similarity index were significantly negatively correlated with stem density in mature plantations (26-31 years old). Higher species diversity and Sorenson similarity index existed in mature sparse plantations due to lower stem density and more tree species planted initially. In contrast, reference natural forest, with species heterogeneity of 2.28 for shrub layer, showed the highest species diversity. It would take a long time for species composition and diversity to recover through reforestation in a dry-hot valley. Therefore, it was essential to protect remnant natural forests strictly and reforest with suitable management such as lower stem density and increasing genetic diversity of trees planted.  相似文献   

16.
Forestry has played an important role in hazard mitigation associated with debris flows. Most forest mitigation measures refer to the experience of soil and water conservation, which disregard the destructive effect of debris flows, causing potentially serious consequences. Determination of the effect of a forest on reducing debris-flow velocity and even stopping debris flows requires distinguishing between when the debris flow will destroy the forest and when the trees will withstand the debris-flow impact force. In this paper, we summarized two impact failure models of a single tree: stem breakage and overturning. The influences of different tree sizes characteristics(stem base diameter, tree weight, and root failure radius) and debris-flow characteristics(density, velocity, flow depth, and boulder diameter) on tree failure were analyzed. The observations obtained from the model adopted in this study show that trees are more prone to stem breakage than overturning. With an increase in tree size, the ability to resist stem breakage and overturning increases. Debris-flow density influences the critical failure conditions of trees substantially less than the debrisflow velocity, depth, and boulder diameter. The application conditions of forests in debris-flow hazard mitigation were proposed based on the analysis of the model results. The proposed models were applied in the Xiajijiehaizi Gully as a case study, and the results explain the destruction of trees in the forest dispersing zone. This work provides references for implementing forest measures for debris-flow hazard mitigation.  相似文献   

17.
Forest structure analysis is important for understanding the properties and development of a forest community,and its outcomes can be influenced by how trees are measured in sampled plots.Although there is a general consensus on the height at which tree diameter should be measured[1.3 m:diameter at breast height(DBH)],the minimum measureddiameter(MMD)often varies in different studies.In this study,we assumed that the outcomes of forest structure analysis can be influenced by MMD and,to this end,we applied g(r)function and stand spatial structural parameters(SSSPs)to investigate how different MMDs affect forest spatial structure analysis in two pine-oak mixed forests(30 and 57 years old)in southwest China and one old-growth oak forest(120years old)from northwest China.Our results showed that 1)MMD was closely related to the distribution patterns of forest trees.Tree distribution patterns at each observational scale(r=0-20 m)tended tobecome random as the MMD increased.The older the community,the earlier this random distribution pattern appeared.2)As the MMD increased,neighboring trees became more regularly distributed around a reference tree.In most cases,however,nearest neighbors of a reference tree were randomly distributed.3)Tree species mingling decreased with increasing diameter,but it decreased slowly in older forests.4)No correlations can be found between individual tree size differentiation and MMD.We recommend that comparisons of spatial structures between communities would be more effective if using a unified MMD criterion.  相似文献   

18.
Impacts of Yulong Mountain Glacier on Tourism in Lijiang   总被引：3，自引：1，他引：2  
Introduction The mountain tourism has been repeatedly identified as potentially vulnerable to global climate change and has received greater research attention. Implications of climate change can be seen, for example, in less snow, receding glaciers, melt…  相似文献   

19.
城市绿化在改善空气、水和土壤质量,吸收和减少二氧化碳及各种污染物,缓解城市热岛和减少雨水径流等方面发挥着重要作用。及时准确地获取树种信息是城市规划与绿化管理的先决条件,对进一步改善城市生态环境也具有重要意义。基于遥感技术,使用高空间分辨率的WorldView-2卫星影像,采用光谱、纹理、指数以及几何等多种特征相结合的面向对象方法,并通过随机森林进行特征选择,对福州大学旗山校区北部的榕树、杧果、香樟、重阳木、羊蹄甲、垂叶榕以及木棉7种主要绿化乔木进行树种分类。实地验证结果表明：通过特征选择可以减少或规避数据冗余以及休斯效应的产生,该方法可以提高现有同类型树种分类的精度,当淘汰全部特征的20%,利用34个特征（包括15个光谱特征、6个纹理特征、8个指数特征和5个几何特征）进行分类时,总精度最高,可达74.95%,Kappa系数为0.67。其中,光谱平均值的特征重要性最高,而各波段的标准差的重要性较低。WorldView-2卫星影像的4个新增波段,特别是黄光和红边波段及其构建的指数特征重要性较高,也说明这些波段在植被遥感,特别是树种分类中极具应用前景。  相似文献   

20.
Biomass carbon sequestration by planted forests in China   总被引：2，自引：1，他引：1  
The planted forest area and carbon sequestration have increased significantly in China, because of large-scale reforestation and afforestation in the past decades. In this study, we developed an age-based volume-to-biomass method to estimate the carbon storage by planted forests in China in the period of 1973–2003 based on the data from 1209 field plots and national forest inventories. The results show that the total carbon storage of planted forests was 0.7743 Pg C in 1999–2003, increased by 3.08 times since the early 1970s. The carbon density of planted forests varied from 10.6594 Mg/ha to 23.9760 Mg/ha and increased by 13.3166 Mg/ha from 1973–1976 to 1999–2003. Since the early 1970s, the planted forests in China have been always a carbon sink, and the annual rate of carbon sequestration was 0.0217 Pg C/yr. The carbon storage and densities of planted forests varied greatly in space and time. The carbon storage of Middle South China was in the lead in all regions, which accounted for 23%–36% of national carbon storage. While higher C densities (from 17.79 Mg/ha to 26.05 Mg/ha) were usually found in Northeast China. The planted forests in China potentially have a high carbon sequestration since a large part of them are becoming mature and afforestation continues to grow.  相似文献   

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