共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 182 毫秒
1.
We used chemical equilibrium calculations to model thermal outgassing of ordinary chondritic material as a function of temperature, pressure, and bulk composition and use our results to discuss outgassing on asteroids and the early Earth. The calculations include ∼1000 solids and gases of the elements Al, C, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, F, Fe, H, K, Mg, Mn, N, Na, Ni, O, P, S, Si, and Ti. The major outgassed volatiles from ordinary chondritic material are CH4, H2, H2O, N2, and NH3 (the latter at conditions where hydrous minerals form). Contrary to widely held assumptions, CO is never the major C-bearing gas during ordinary chondrite metamorphism. The calculated oxygen fugacity (partial pressure) of ordinary chondritic material is close to that of the quartz-fayalite-iron (QFI) buffer. Our results are insensitive to variable total pressure, variable volatile element abundances, and kinetic inhibition of C and N dissolution in Fe metal. Our results predict that Earth's early atmosphere contained CH4, H2, H2O, N2, and NH3; similar to that used in Miller—Urey synthesis of organic compounds. 相似文献
2.
The radiogenic and primordial noble gas content of the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars are compared with one another and with the noble gas content of other extraterrestial samples, especially meteorites. The fourfold depletion of 40Ar for Venus relative to the Earth is attributed to the outgassing rates and associated tectonics and volcanic styles for the two planets diverging significantly within the first billion or so years of their history, with the outgassing rate for Venus becoming much less than that for the Earth at subsequent times. This early divergence in the tectonic style of the two planets may be due to a corresponding early onset of the runaway greenhouse on Venus. The 16-fold depletion of 40Ar for Mars relative to the Earth may be due to a combination of a mild K depletion for Mars, a smaller fraction of its interior being outgassed, and to an early reduction in its outgassing rate. Venus has lost virtually all of its primordial He and some of its radiogenic He. The escape flux of He may have been quite substantial in Venus' early history, but much diminished at later times, with this time variation being perhaps strongly influenced by massive losses of H2 resulting from efficient H2O loss processes.Key trends in the primordial noble gas content of terrestial planetary atmospheres include (1) a several orders of magnitude decrease in 20Ne and 36Ar from Venus to Earth to Mars; (2) a nearly constant 20Ne/36Ar ratio which is comparable to that found in the more primitive carbonaceous chondrites and which is two orders of magnitude smaller than the solar ratio; (3) a sizable fractionation of Ar, Kr, and Xe from their solar ratios, although the degree of fractionation, especially for 36Ar/132Xe, seems to decrease systematically from carbonaceous chondrites to Mars to Earth to Venus; and (4) large differences in Ne and Xe isotopic ratios among Earth, meteorites, and the Sun. Explaining trends (2), (2) and (4), and (1) pose the biggest problems for the solar-wind implantation, primitive atmosphere, and late veneer hypotheses, respectively. It is suggested that the grain-accretion hypothesis can explain all four trends, although the assumptions needed to achieve this agreement are far from proven. In particular, trends (1), (2), (3), and (4) are attributed to large pressure but small temperature differences in various regions of the inner solar system at the times of noble gas incorporation by host phases; similar proportions of the host phases that incorporated most of the He and Ne on the one hand (X) and Ar, Kr, and Xe on the other hand (Q); a decrease in the degree of fractionation with increasing noble-gas partial pressure; and the presence of interstellar carriers containing isotopically anomalous noble gases.Our analysis also suggests that primordial noble gases were incorporated throughout the interior of the outer terrestial planets, i.e., homogeneous accretion is favored over inhomogeneous accretion. In accord with meteorite data, we propose that carbonaceous materials were key hosts for the primordial noble gases incorporated into planets and that they provided a major source of the planets' CO2 and N2. 相似文献
3.
Katharina LoddersBruce Fegley Jr. 《Icarus》2002,155(2):393-424
The chemical species containing carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen in atmospheres of giant planets, brown dwarfs (T and L dwarfs), and low-mass stars (M dwarfs) are identified as part of a comprehensive set of thermochemical equilibrium and kinetic calculations for all elements. The calculations cover a wide temperature and pressure range in the upper portions of giant planetary and T-, L-, and M-dwarf atmospheres. Emphasis is placed on the major gases CH4, CO, NH3, N2, and H2O but other less abundant gases are included. The results presented are independent of particular model atmospheres, and can be used to constrain model atmosphere temperatures and pressures from observations of different gases. The influence of metallicity on the speciation of these key elements under pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions relevant to low-mass object atmospheres is discussed. The results of the thermochemical equilibrium computations indicate that several compounds may be useful to establish temperature or pressure scales for giant planet, brown dwarf, or dwarf star atmospheres. We find that ethane and methanol abundance are useful temperature probes in giant planets and methane dwarfs such as Gl 229B, and that CO2 can serve as a temperature probe in more massive objects. Imidogen (NH) abundances are a unique pressure-independent temperature probe for all objects. Total pressure probes for warmer brown dwarfs and M dwarfs are HCN, HCNO, and CH2O. No temperature-independent probes for the total pressure in giant planets or T-dwarf atmospheres are identified among the more abundant C, N, and O bearing gases investigated here. 相似文献
4.
Sedimentation rates of silicate grains in gas giant protoplanets formed by disk instability are calculated for protoplanetary masses between 1 MSaturn to 10 MJupiter. Giant protoplanets with masses of 5 MJupiter or larger are found to be too hot for grain sedimentation to form a silicate core. Smaller protoplanets are cold enough to allow grain settling and core formation. Grain sedimentation and core formation occur in the low mass protoplanets because of their slow contraction rate and low internal temperature. It is predicted that massive giant planets will not have cores, while smaller planets will have small rocky cores whose masses depend on the planetary mass, the amount of solids within the body, and the disk environment. The protoplanets are found to be too hot to allow the existence of icy grains, and therefore the cores are predicted not to contain any ices. It is suggested that the atmospheres of low mass giant planets are depleted in refractory elements compared with the atmospheres of more massive planets. These predictions provide a test of the disk instability model of gas giant planet formation. The core masses of Jupiter and Saturn were found to be ∼0.25 M⊕ and ∼0.5 M⊕, respectively. The core masses of Jupiter and Saturn can be substantially larger if planetesimal accretion is included. The final core mass will depend on planetesimal size, the time at which planetesimals are formed, and the size distribution of the material added to the protoplanet. Jupiter's core mass can vary from 2 to 12 M⊕. Saturn's core mass is found to be ∼8 M⊕. 相似文献
5.
By comparison with the Earth-like planets and the large icy satellites of the Solar System, one can model the internal structure of extrasolar planets. The input parameters are the composition of the star (Fe/Si and Mg/Si), the Mg content of the mantle (Mg# = Mg/[Mg + Fe]), the amount of H2O and the total mass of the planet. Equation of State (EoS) of the different materials that are likely to be present within such planets have been obtained thanks to recent progress in high-pressure experiments. They are used to compute the planetary radius as a function of the total mass. Based on accretion models and data on planetary differentiation, the internal structure is likely to consist of an iron-rich core, a silicate mantle and an outer silicate crust resulting from magma formation in the mantle. The amount of H2O and the surface temperature control the possibility for these planets to harbor an ocean. In preparation to the interpretation of the forthcoming data from the CNES led CoRoT (Convection Rotation and Transit) mission and from ground-based observations, this paper investigates the relationship between radius and mass. If H2O is not an important component (less than 0.1%) of the total mass of the planet, then a relation (R/REarth)=ab(M/MEarth) is calculated with (a,b)=(1,0.306) and (a,b)=(1,0.274) for 10−2MEarth<M<MEarth and MEarth<M<10MEarth, respectively. Calculations for a planet that contains 50% H2O suggest that the radius would be more than 25% larger than that based on the Earth-like model, with (a,b)=(1.258,0.302) for 10−2MEarth<M<MEarth and (a,b)=(1.262,0.275) for MEarth<M<10MEarth, respectively. For a surface temperature of 300 K, the thickness of the ocean varies from 150 to 50 km for planets 1 to 10 times the Earth's mass, respectively. Application of this algorithm to bodies of the Solar System provides not only a good fit to most terrestrial planets and large icy satellites, but also insights for discussing future observations of exoplanets. 相似文献
6.
In response to the observations of the ultravioler deficiencies shown by all of the outer planets and Titan, models have been proposed to explain the low albedos by absorption by particles in the upper atmospheres of these objects. These particles are generally believed to be photochemically formed from gases in the upper atmospheres, primarily methane and hydrogen. Such processes may also be operative on Titan. The results of some laboratory experiments of the proton irradiation of mixtures of gases including CH4 H2, NH3, etc., have shown that liquid and solid materials are produced that are strong ultraviolet absorbers. However, the material produced from the CH4 + H2 mixture was colorless, indicating that species containing elements other than carbon and hydrogen are necessary for the production of color. Two such elements are nitrogen (as NH3 or N2) and sulfur (as H2S) and colored materials have been produced from such mixtures. None of these materials has spectral properties identical to those shown by the planets. Therefore it is necessary that mixtures (and/or cloud layers) of the photochemical materials be present. 相似文献
7.
Alan E. Rubin 《Meteoritics & planetary science》1983,18(2):113-121
Atlanta is the fifth known brecciated enstatite chondrite. It contains a centimeter-sized troilite-rich clast, similar to those that occur in Blithfield. All of these clasts probably formed in the solar nebula under high pS2/pO2 conditions in a gas of non-cosmic composition. The absence of ordinary or carbonaceous chondrite clasts in any of the enstatite chondrite breccias and absence of enstatite chondrite clasts or materials formed at high pS2/pO2 ratios in ordinary and carbonaceous chondrite breccias support the model that enstatite chondrites were formed at a location distant from those of the other chondritic groups. 相似文献
8.
David L. Huestis 《Planetary and Space Science》2008,56(13):1733-1743
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. Molecular hydrogen is the dominant chemical species in the atmospheres of the giant planets. Because of their low masses, neutral and ionized hydrogen atoms are the dominant species in the high atmospheres of many planets. Finally, protons are the principal heavy component of the solar wind.Here we present a critical evaluation of the current state of understanding of the chemical reaction rates and collision cross sections for several important hydrogen collision processes in planetary atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres. Accurate ab initio quantum theory will play an important role. The collision processes are grouped as follows:
- (a)
- H++H charge transfer,
- (b)
- H++H2(v) charge transfer and vibrational relaxation, and
- (c)
- H2(v,J)+H2 vibrational, rotational, and ortho-para relaxation.
9.
Earth and Titan are two planetary bodies formed far from each other. Nevertheless the chemical composition of their atmospheres exhibits common indications of being produced by the accretion, plus ulterior in-situ processing of cometary materials. This is remarkable because while the Earth formed in the inner part of the disk, presumably from the accretion of rocky planetesimals depleted in oxygen and exhibiting a chemical similitude with enstatite chondrites, Titan formed within Saturn's sub-nebula from oxygen- and volatile-rich bodies, called cometesimals. From a cosmochemical and astrobiological perspective, the study of the H, C, N, and O isotopes on Earth and Titan could be the key to decipher the processes occurred in the early stages of formation of both planetary bodies. The main goal of this paper is to quantify the presumable ways of chemical evolution of both planetary bodies, in particular the abundance of CO and N2 in their early atmospheres. In order to do that the primeval atmospheres and evolution of Titan and Earth have been analyzed from a thermodynamic point of view. The most relevant chemical reactions involving these species and presumably important at their early stages are discussed. Then, we have interpreted the results of this study in light of the results obtained by the Cassini–Huygens mission on these species and their isotopes. Given that H, C, N, and O were preferentially depleted from inner disk materials that formed our planet, the observed similitude of their isotopic fractionation, and subsequent close evolution of Earth's and Titan's atmospheres points towards a cometary origin of Earth atmosphere. Consequently, our scenario also supports the key role of late veneers (comets and water-rich carbonaceous asteroids) enriching the volatile content of the Earth at the time of the late heavy bombardment of terrestrial planets. 相似文献
10.
Roger V. Yelle 《Icarus》2004,170(1):167-179
One-dimensional aeronomical calculations of the atmospheric structure of extra-solar giant planets in orbits with semi-major axes from 0.01 to 0.1 AU show that the thermospheres are heated to over 10,000 K by the EUV flux from the central star. The high temperatures cause the atmosphere to escape rapidly, implying that the upper thermosphere is cooled primarily by adiabatic expansion. The lower thermosphere is cooled primarily by radiative emissions from H+3, created by photoionization of H2 and subsequent ion chemistry. Thermal decomposition of H2 causes an abrupt change in the composition, from molecular to atomic, near the base of the thermosphere. The composition of the upper thermosphere is determined by the balance between photoionization, advection, and H+ recombination. Molecular diffusion and thermal conduction are of minor importance, in part because of large atmospheric scale heights. The energy-limited atmospheric escape rate is approximately proportional to the stellar EUV flux. Although escape rates are large, the atmospheres are stable over time scales of billions of years. 相似文献
11.
Helmut Lammer Aubrey L. Zerkle Stefanie Gebauer Nicola Tosi Lena Noack Manuel Scherf Elke Pilat-Lohinger Manuel Güdel John Lee Grenfell Mareike Godolt Athanasia Nikolaou 《Astronomy and Astrophysics Review》2018,26(1):2
We review the origin and evolution of the atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars from the time when their accreting bodies were released from the protoplanetary disk a few million years after the origin of the Sun. If the accreting planetary cores reached masses \(\ge 0.5 M_\mathrm{Earth}\) before the gas in the disk disappeared, primordial atmospheres consisting mainly of H\(_2\) form around the young planetary body, contrary to late-stage planet formation, where terrestrial planets accrete material after the nebula phase of the disk. The differences between these two scenarios are explored by investigating non-radiogenic atmospheric noble gas isotope anomalies observed on the three terrestrial planets. The role of the young Sun’s more efficient EUV radiation and of the plasma environment into the escape of early atmospheres is also addressed. We discuss the catastrophic outgassing of volatiles and the formation and cooling of steam atmospheres after the solidification of magma oceans and we describe the geochemical evidence for additional delivery of volatile-rich chondritic materials during the main stages of terrestrial planet formation. The evolution scenario of early Earth is then compared with the atmospheric evolution of planets where no active plate tectonics emerged like on Venus and Mars. We look at the diversity between early Earth, Venus and Mars, which is found to be related to their differing geochemical, geodynamical and geophysical conditions, including plate tectonics, crust and mantle oxidation processes and their involvement in degassing processes of secondary \(\hbox {N}_2\) atmospheres. The buildup of atmospheric \(\hbox {N}_2\), \(\hbox {O}_2\), and the role of greenhouse gases such as \(\hbox {CO}_2\) and \(\hbox {CH}_4\) to counter the Faint Young Sun Paradox (FYSP), when the earliest life forms on Earth originated until the Great Oxidation Event \(\approx \) 2.3 Gyr ago, are addressed. This review concludes with a discussion on the implications of understanding Earth’s geophysical and related atmospheric evolution in relation to the discovery of potential habitable terrestrial exoplanets. 相似文献
12.
We present results from 44 simulations of late stage planetary accretion, focusing on the delivery of volatiles (primarily water) to the terrestrial planets. Our simulations include both planetary “embryos” (defined as Moon to Mars sized protoplanets) and planetesimals, assuming that the embryos formed via oligarchic growth. We investigate volatile delivery as a function of Jupiter's mass, position and eccentricity, the position of the snow line, and the density (in solids) of the solar nebula. In all simulations, we form 1-4 terrestrial planets inside 2 AU, which vary in mass and volatile content. In 44 simulations we have formed 43 planets between 0.8 and 1.5 AU, including 11 “habitable” planets between 0.9 and 1.1 AU. These planets range from dry worlds to “water worlds” with 100+oceans of water (1 ocean=1.5×1024 g), and vary in mass between 0.23M⊕ and 3.85M⊕. There is a good deal of stochastic noise in these simulations, but the most important parameter is the planetesimal mass we choose, which reflects the surface density in solids past the snow line. A high density in this region results in the formation of a smaller number of terrestrial planets with larger masses and higher water content, as compared with planets which form in systems with lower densities. We find that an eccentric Jupiter produces drier terrestrial planets with higher eccentricities than a circular one. In cases with Jupiter at 7 AU, we form what we call “super embryos,” 1-2M⊕ protoplanets which can serve as the accretion seeds for 2+M⊕ planets with large water contents. 相似文献
13.
Adrián Brunini 《Icarus》2005,177(1):264-268
The sample of known exoplanets is strongly biased to masses larger than the ones of the giant gaseous planets of the Solar System. Recently, the discovery of two extrasolar planets of considerably lower masses around the nearby Stars GJ 436 and ρ Cancri was reported. They are like our outermost icy giants, Uranus and Neptune, but in contrast, these new planets are orbiting at only some hundredth of the Earth-Sun distance from their host stars, raising several new questions about their origin and constitution. Here we report numerical simulations of planetary accretion that show, for the first time through N-body integrations that the formation of compact systems of Neptune-like planets close to the hosts stars could be a common by-product of planetary formation. We found a regime of planetary accretion, in which orbital migration accumulates protoplanets in a narrow region around the inner edge of the nebula, where they collide each other giving rise to Neptune-like planets. Our results suggest that, if a protoplanetary solar environment is common in the Galaxy, the discovery of a vast population of this sort of ‘hot cores’ should be expected in the near future. 相似文献
14.
John W. Larimer 《Icarus》1979,40(3):446-454
It has long been recognized that Cr, Mg, and Si are fractionated in chondritic material along with, but to a much lesser extent than, a large group of more refractory elements. Reasoning that this might imply some unique distribution at the time of fractionation, the patterns have been reexamined. It now appears as if two distinct fractionation patterns can be resolved: one involving ordinary and enstatite chondrites and the other involving carbonaceous chondrites, the Earth, the Moon, and the eucrite parent body. Significantly, the two trends inevitably intersect at C1 composition. Ordinary and enstatite chondrites appear to have evolved from C1 composition via the removal of about 40 and 56% of a high-temperature condensate. Another high-temperature condensate, with a distinctly different composition, appears to be enriched in the carbonaceous chondrites, the Moon, and possibly the Earth, but depleted in the eucrite parent body. The compositions of these two components are constrained to fall on the appropriate mixing lines. These lines intersect the condensation path at two points, one where Mg2SiO4 has just begun to condense (～20%) and a second where Mg2SiO4 was almost completely condensed (～90%). This represents about an 80° temperature difference. But it is within this range that the largest fraction of planetary matter (Mg, Si, and Fe) condenses. Conceivably the relatively sudden appearance of large amounts of condensed material is in some way related to the fractionation process, although the exact relationship cannot be specified. 相似文献
15.
Shock wave and thermodynamic data for rock-forming and volatile-bearing minerals are used to determine minimum impact velocities (vcr) and minimum impact pressures (pcr) required to form a primary H2O atmosphere during planetary accretion from chondritelike planetesimals. The escape of initially released water from an accreting planet is controlled by the dehydration efficiency. Since different planetary surface porosities will result from formation of a regolith, vcr and pcr can vary from 1.5 to 5.8 km/sec and from 90 to 600 kbar, respectively, for target porosities between 0 and ～45%. On the basis of experimental data, hydration rates for forsterite and enstatite are derived. For a global regolith layer on the Earth's surface, the maximum hydration rate equals 6 × 1010 g H2O sec?1 during accretion of the Earth. Attenuation of impact-induced shock pressure is modeled to the extent that the amount of released water as a function of projectile radius, impact velocity, weight fraction of water in the target, target porosity, and dehydration efficiency can be estimated. The two primary processes considered are the impact release of water bound in hydrous minerals (e.g., serpentine) and the subsequent reincorporation of free water by hydration of forsterite and enstatite. These processes are described in terms of model calculations for the accretion of the Earth. Parameters which lead to a primary atmosphere/hydrosphere are: an accretion time of ? 1.6 × 108years, the use of an accretion model defined by Weidenschilling (1974, 1976), a mean planetesimal radius of 0.5 km, a hydration rate of 6 × 1010 g H2O sec?1 inferred from a mean porosity of ～ 10% for the upper 1 km of the accreting Earth, and values for the dehydration efficiency, DE, of 0.55 and 0.07 for the maximum and minimum pressure decay model, respectively. Conditions which prohibit the formation of a primary atmosphere include an accretion time much longer than 1.6 × 108 years, a hydration rate for forsterite and enstatite well in excess of 6 × 1010 g H2O sec?1, and a dehydration efficiency DE < 0.07. We conclude that the concept of dehydration efficiency is of dominant importance in determining the degree to which an accreting planet acquires an atmosphere during its formation. 相似文献
16.
Most stars reside in binary/multiple star systems; however, previous models of planet formation have studied growth of bodies orbiting an isolated single star. Disk material has been observed around both components of some young close binary star systems. Additionally, it has been shown that if planets form at the right places within such disks, they can remain dynamically stable for very long times. Herein, we numerically simulate the late stages of terrestrial planet growth in circumbinary disks around ‘close’ binary star systems with stellar separations 0.05 AU?aB?0.4 AU and binary eccentricities 0?eB?0.8. In each simulation, the sum of the masses of the two stars is 1 M⊙, and giant planets are included. The initial disk of planetary embryos is the same as that used for simulating the late stages of terrestrial planet formation within our Solar System by Chambers [Chambers, J.E., 2001. Icarus 152, 205-224], and around each individual component of the α Centauri AB binary star system by Quintana et al. [Quintana, E.V., Lissauer, J.J., Chambers, J.E., Duncan, M.J., 2002. Astrophys. J. 576, 982-996]. Multiple simulations are performed for each binary star system under study, and our results are statistically compared to a set of planet formation simulations in the Sun-Jupiter-Saturn system that begin with essentially the same initial disk of protoplanets. The planetary systems formed around binaries with apastron distances QB≡aB(1+eB)?0.2 AU are very similar to those around single stars, whereas those with larger maximum separations tend to be sparcer, with fewer planets, especially interior to 1 AU. We also provide formulae that can be used to scale results of planetary accretion simulations to various systems with different total stellar mass, disk sizes, and planetesimal masses and densities. 相似文献
17.
Observations of the H2 S(0) and S(1) quadrupole lines in the four giant planets by the short-wavelength spectrometer of the Infrared Space Observatory are analyzed. These lines probe pressure levels located between 10 and 1 mbar and allow us to determine the stratospheric hydrogen para fraction for the first time. In Jupiter and Saturn, the stratospheric para fraction is close to its tropopause value. In the stratosphere of these planets as well as in Neptune’s, the para fraction presents a significant departure from thermodynamic equilibrium. This situation results from a lagged conversion between the ortho and the para states as molecular hydrogen is transported upward under the influence of turbulent eddy diffusion. In contrast, the uranian stratosphere lies close to thermodynamic equilibrium. The magnitude of the departure from thermodynamic equilibrium appears to be anti-correlated with the amount of stratospheric aerosols. To validate this assumption, we estimate the hydrogen equilibration time with a one-dimensional diffusion model for different conversion processes in the gas phase or on aerosols. The comparison between our results and the tropospheric estimates from Conrath et al. (1998, Icarus,135, 501-517) shows that paramagnetic conversion on aerosols matches the estimated tropospheric and stratospheric relaxation times in the four giant planets. In contrast, paramagnetic conversion in the gas phase can only explain the relaxation times measured in Jupiter and Saturn atmospheres. This situation provides quantitative evidence for an equilibration mechanism dominated by conversion on aerosols. 相似文献
18.
Spectral observations of Saturn from the far infrared spectrometer aboard the Cassini spacecraft [Flasar, F.M., et al., 2005. Temperatures, winds, and composition in the Saturnian system. Science 307, 1247-1251] have revealed that the C/H ratio in the planet is in fact about twice higher than previously derived from ground based observations and in agreement with the C/H value derived from Voyager IRIS by Courtin et al. [1984. The composition of Saturn's atmosphere at northern temperate latitudes from Voyager IRIS spectra - NH3, PH3, C2H2, C2H6, CH3D, CH4, and the Saturnian D/H isotopic ratio. Astrophys. J. 287, 899-916]. The implications of this measurement are reanalyzed in the present report on the basis that volatiles observed in cometary atmospheres, namely CO2, CH4, NH3 and H2S may have been trapped as solids in the feeding zone of the planet. CH4 and H2S may have been in the form of clathrate hydrates while CO2 presumably condensed in the cooling solar nebula. Carbon may also have been incorporated in organics. Conditions of temperature and pressure ease the hydratation of NH3. Such icy grains were included in planetesimals which subsequently collapsed into the hydrogen envelope of the planet, then resulting in C, N and S enrichments with respect to the solar abundance. Our calculations are consistent, within error bars, with observed elemental abundances on Saturn provided that the carbon trapped in planetesimals was mainly in the form of CH4 clathrate and CO2 ice (and maybe as organics) while nitrogen was in the form of NH3 hydrate. Our approach has implications on the possible pattern of noble gases in Saturn, since we predict that contrary to what is observed in Jupiter, Ar and Kr should be in solar abundance while Xe might be strongly oversolar. The only way to verify this scenario is to send a probe making in situ mass spectrometer measurements. Our scenario also predicts that the 14N/15N ratio should be somewhat smaller in Saturn than measured in Jupiter by Galileo. 相似文献
19.
F. Selsis P. Bordé F. Brachet F. Bouchy J.-M. Grießmeier C. Sotin C. Moutou M. Deleuil D. Despois A. Léger 《Icarus》2007,191(2):453-468
Planets less massive than about 10 MEarth are expected to have no massive H-He atmosphere and a cometary composition (∼50% rocks, 50% water, by mass) provided they formed beyond the snowline of protoplanetary disks. Due to inward migration, such planets could be found at any distance between their formation site and the star. If migration stops within the habitable zone, this may produce a new kind of planets, called ocean-planets. Ocean-planets typically consist in a silicate core, surrounded by a thick ice mantle, itself covered by a 100 km-deep ocean. The possible existence of ocean-planets raises important astrobiological questions: Can life originate on such body, in the absence of continent and ocean-silicate interfaces? What would be the nature of the atmosphere and the geochemical cycles? In this work, we address the fate of hot ocean-planets produced when migration ends at a closer distance. In this case the liquid/gas interface can disappear, and the hot H2O envelope is made of a supercritical fluid. Although we do not expect these bodies to harbor life, their detection and identification as water-rich planets would give us insight as to the abundance of hot and, by extrapolation, cool ocean-planets. The water reservoir of these planets seems to be weakly affected by gravitational escape, provided that they are located beyond some minimum distance, e.g. 0.04 AU for a 5-Earth-mass planet around a Sun-like star. The swelling of their water atmospheres by the high stellar flux is expected not to significantly increase the planets' radii. We have studied the possibility of detecting and characterizing these hot ocean-planets by measuring their mean densities using transit missions in space—CoRoT (CNES) and Kepler (NASA)—in combination with Doppler velocimetry from the ground—HARPS (ESO) and possible future instruments. We have determined the domain in the [stellar magnitude, orbital distance] plane where discrimination between ocean-planets and rocky planets is possible with these instruments. The brightest stars of the mission target lists and the planets closest to their stars are the most favorable cases. Full advantage of high precision photometry by CoRoT, and particularly Kepler, can be obtained only if a new generation of Doppler instruments is built. 相似文献
20.
P. Hartogh E. Lellouch M. Banaszkiewicz E.A. Bergin N. Biver M.I. Blecka D. Bockelée-Morvan J. Cernicharo G. Davis P. Encrenaz A. González T. de Graauw D. Hutsemékers E. Jehin M. Kidger A. de Lange D.C. Lis J. Manfroid R. Moreno G. Orton M. Rengel M. Sánchez-Portal S. Sidher B. Swinyard N. Thomas B. Vandenbussche C. Waelkens 《Planetary and Space Science》2009,57(13):1596-1606
“Water and related chemistry in the Solar System” is a Herschel Space Observatory Guaranteed-Time Key Programme. This project, approved by the European Space Agency, aims at determining the distribution, the evolution and the origin of water in Mars, the outer planets, Titan, Enceladus and the comets. It addresses the broad topic of water and its isotopologues in planetary and cometary atmospheres. The nature of cometary activity and the thermodynamics of cometary comae will be investigated by studying water excitation in a sample of comets. The D/H ratio, the key parameter for constraining the origin and evolution of Solar System species, will be measured for the first time in a Jupiter-family comet. A comparison with existing and new measurements of D/H in Oort-cloud comets will constrain the composition of pre-solar cometary grains and possibly the dynamics of the protosolar nebula. New measurements of D/H in giant planets, similarly constraining the composition of proto-planetary ices, will be obtained. The D/H and other isotopic ratios, diagnostic of Mars’ atmosphere evolution, will be accurately measured in H2O and CO. The role of water vapor in Mars’ atmospheric chemistry will be studied by monitoring vertical profiles of H2O and HDO and by searching for several other species (and CO and H2O isotopes). A detailed study of the source of water in the upper atmosphere of the Giant Planets and Titan will be performed. By monitoring the water abundance, vertical profile, and input fluxes in the various objects, and when possible with the help of mapping observations, we will discriminate between the possible sources of water in the outer planets (interplanetary dust particles, cometary impacts, and local sources). In addition to these inter-connected objectives, serendipitous searches will enhance our knowledge of the composition of planetary and cometary atmospheres. 相似文献