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1.
Daily mean values of the Priestley-Taylor coefficient, ¯, are derived from a simple model of the daily growth of a convective boundary layer. For a particular control set of driving environmental variables, ¯ is related to the prescribed bulk surface resistance, rS by 1/¯ = 1/0 + mrS for parameters 0 and m. The dependence of the parameters 0 and m on weather is explored and a potential use of this linear relation to provide information about regional values of rS is indicated.  相似文献   

2.
The standard deviation of temperature T is proposed as a temperature scale and as a velocity scale to describe the behaviour of turbulent flows in the Atmospheric Surface Layer (ASL), instead of * andu * of the Monin—Obukhov similarity theory, and ofT f andU f used for free convection stability conditions. On the basis of experimental evidence reported in the literature, it is shown that T T f andv * U f in the free convection region, and T * andv * U * in nearneutral and stable conditions. This implies that the proposed scales can be applied for all stabilities. Furthermore, a new length scale is proposed and its relation with Obukhov length is given. Also, a simple semi-empirical expression is presented with which T andv * can be evaluated in a rather simple way. Some examples of practical applications are given, e.g., a stability classification for unstable conditions.  相似文献   

3.
The two-layer system of an atmosphere over water bodies is reduced to a single-layer problem. Values of the interfacial quantities, such as the friction velocity, the surface velocity, the angles, and , between the surface shear stress and the geostrophic wind velocity and the surface wind velocity, respectively, and the surface roughness, all of which depend upon external parameters, such as the geostrophic wind and stratifications, are obtained. The geostrophic drag coefficient C d, the geostrophic wind coefficient C f, and the angles , and , of the turbulent flow at the sea-air interface are functions of a dimensionless number, mfG/kg, with S 1 and S 2 as two free stratification parameters. The surface roughness is uniquely determined from the geostrophic wind rather than from the wind profile in the boundary layer.Formerly Visiting Research Associate, Applied Physics Branch, Earth Observations Division, NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas.  相似文献   

4.
Zusammenfassung Eine endliche Reihe (Sequenz) wird als eine der möglichen Permutationen ihrer Glieder aufgefaßt. Es wird gezeigt, daß die Summe der absoluten Differenzen der aufeinanderfolgenden Glieder gleich ist , wo die natürliche Zahlen sind und nur von der Rangordnung der Glieder der Reihe (von der Permutation) abhängen; die j sind von der Reihenfolge unabhängig und werden durch die Dispersion der Reihenglieder bestimmt. Die j und die j werden separat untersucht; der Erwartungswert der erwähnten Differenzsumme wird abgeleitet. Verschiedene bereits bekannte und auch erstmalig hier vorgeschlagene Maßzahlen werden geprüft. An Reihen jährlicher Regenmengen wird die Rolle der j und der j und das Verhalten der besprochenen Maßzahlen veranschaulicht.
Summary A series ofn members can be considered as one of the possible permutations of its members. It is shown that the sum of the linear successive differences is equal to the expression , where the j are positive integers, dependent only upon the rank-order (the permutation) of the members, while the j are independent of the order of the succession and are determined by the dispersion of the members of the series. The factors j and j are separately investigated; the expected value of the sum of the linear successive differences is established. Various related statistical measures, already in usage and new ones suggested here, are discussed. Series of yearly rainfall amounts are used to show the effects of the j and j and to discuss the behaviour of the various measures.
Résumé Une série, constituée parn valeurs, est regardée comme une des possibles permutations de ces valeurs. L'auteur montre que la somme des différences absolues, qui se présentent entre les valeurs consécutives de la série, est égale à l'expression . Les j sont des nombres entiers positifs et ne dépendent que de l'ordre des membres de la série, tandis que les j, indépendants de l'ordre, sont déterminés par la dispersion des membres. Les facteurs j et j sont étudiés séparément; l'espérance mathématique de la somme mentionnée est dérivée. Des paramètres statistiques déjà connus ou proposés ici pour la première fois, sont discutés. Le rôle des j et des j et le comportement des divers paramètres sont montrés à l'aide de séries de totaux annuels de pluies.
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5.
Summary The integral aerosol optical depths (k ) at the hour of 08:20 Local Standard Time (LST), are compared with those calculated previously at 11:20 and 14:20 LST, for clear days during summer in Athens over the period 1962–1988. The mean values at 08:20 LST were consistently lower than the values at 11:20 and 14:20 LST. The influence of the vertical wind profile on the values ofk was also investigated. A comparison was made of the wind profiles at 02:00 and 14:00 LST, for days in which the 11:20 and 14:20 LST values ofk were 0.200 andk 0.350, respectively. The corresponding bulk wind shear s was also found for the period 1980–1988. The most significant results occurred with the first category of days. The resultant wind velocities from the surface to the 900 hPa level, in each hour were higher by 2–4 m·s–1 with respect to the corresponding values for the second category. At 02:00 LST the bulk wind shear showed a considerable difference (1.8) between the two categories of days in the surface to 700 hPa layer at 02:00 LST. Finally, the associated weather conditions that appear to initiate a period of low values ofk (k 0.200) at 11:20 and 14:20 LST were examined for the period 1980–1988. Fifteen such cases were identified and it was found that they all occurred after the passage of weak cold fronts.With 6 Figures  相似文献   

6.
Frequency spectra of atmospheric turbulenceS (f) in the inertial subrange are considered in the free convection regime over the sea surface in a case of motionless instrument measurements (Eulerian frequency spectra). The frequency spectra formulaef * S (f)/ 2 =c (f */f)5/3 for wind velocity (=1–3), temperature (=t) and humidity (=e) fluctuations are derived on the basis of similarity theory and the –5/3 law. These relations also can be derived from a consideration of convective large-scale advection of small eddies. The frequency scalef * = (N 1 2/)1/2 (H/z 2)1/3 is the lower bound of the inertial subrange and it is of order 10–2 Hz.The spectra formulae are compared with direct measurements of atmospheric turbulence from the fixed research tower in the coastal zone of the Black Sea in calm weather. It is shown that these formulae are realized at least over two to three decades of the frequency range (approximately from 10–2 to 10 Hz) and values of the numerical coefficients are found. The derived formulae can be used for calculations of sensible and latent heat fluxes by measuring the high-frequency range of spectra at a fixed point at low wind speeds when the conventional inertial dissipation method is not applicable.  相似文献   

7.
Summary A radiative transfer model has been used to determine the large scale effective 6.6 GHz and 37 GHz optical depths of the vegetation cover. Knowledge of the vegetation optical depth is important for satellite-based large scale soil moisture monitoring using microwave radiometry. The study is based on actual observed large scale surface soil moisture data and observed dual polarization 6.6 and 37 GHz Nimbus/SMMR brightness temperatures over a 3-year period. The derived optical depths have been compared with microwave polarization differences and polarization ratios in both frequencies and with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values from NOAA/AVHRR. A synergistic approach to derive surface soil emissivity from satellite observed brightness temperatures by inverse modelling is described. This approach improves the relationship between satellite derived surface emissivity and large scale top soil moisture fromR 2=0.45 (no correction for vegetation) toR 2=0.72 (after correction for vegetation). This study also confirms the relationship between the microwave-based MPDI and NDVI earlier described and explained in the literature.List of Symbols f frequency [Hz] - f i(p) fractional absorption at polarizationp - h surface roughness - h h cos2 - H horizontal polarization - n i complex index of refraction - p polarization (H orV) - R s microwave surface reflectivity - T B(p) brightness temperature at polarizationp - T * normalized brightness temperature - T polarization difference (T v-T H) - T s temperature of soil surface - T c temperature of canopy - T max daily maximum air temperature - T min daily minimum air temperature - V vertical polarization - soil moisture distribution factor; also used for the constant to partition the influence of bound and free water components to the dielectric constant of the mixture - empirical complex constant related to soil texture - microwave transmissivity of vegetation (=e –) - * effective transmissivity of vegetation (assuming =0) - microwave emissivity - s emissivity of smooth soil surface - rs emissivity of rough soil surface - vs emissivity of vegetated surface - soil moisture content (% vol.) - K dielectric constant [F·m–1] - K fw dielectric constant of free water [F·m–1] - K ss dielectric constant of soil solids [F·m–1] - K m dielectric constant of mixture [F·m–1] - K o permittivity of free space [8.854·10–12 F·m–1] - high frequency limit ofK wf [F·m–1] - wavelength [m] - incidence angle [degrees from nadir] - polarization ratio (T H/T V) - b soil bulk density [gr·cm–3] - s soil particle density [gr·cm–3] - R surface reflectivity in red portion of spectrum - NIR surface reflectivity in near infrared portion of spectrum - eff effective conductivity of soil extract [mS·cm–1] - vegetation optical depth - 6.6 vegetation optical depth at 6.6 GHz - 37 vegetation optical depth at 37 GHz - * effective vegetation optical depth (assuming =0) - single scattering albedo of vegetation With 12 Figures  相似文献   

8.
Summary A simple method of representing cumulative frequency distributions ofk-day period amounts of precipitation (30k1800), deduced from observations at Hoofddorp during 87 years and from observations at Winterswijk during 73 years, by means of cumulative Poisson distributions, had been developed. Poisson's constant appeared to depend linearly onk only, while the Poisson unitq appeared to be only proportional to the annual variation.In this paper it is shown that the representation of observed cumulative frequency distributions with the aid of Poisson distributions is true for any station in The Netherlands in the interval 30k1800. A map with isopleths of -values fork=360 presents a simple picture, so that for any station an -value fork=360 can be estimated. For the process of representation the meank-day period amount of precipitation is also necessary. This value may be obtained from a map for each of the 12 months, each map covered with isohyetal lines, which give a distribution of the monthly precipitation.
Zusammenfassung Es wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um in einfacher Weise Summenfunktionen vonk-tägigen Niederschlagsmengen (30k1800), welche aus Beobachtungen in Hoofddorp während 87 Jahren und in Winterswijk während 73 Jahren angestellt worden sind, durch kumulative Poissonsche Häufigkeitsverteilungen darzustellen. Dabei ergab sich, daß die Poissonsche Konstante nur linear vonk abhängig ist, während die Poissonsche Einheitq sich als proportional zum Jahresgang erwies.In der vorliegenden Untersuchung wird nun gezeigt, daß die Darstellung der beobachteten kumulativen Häufigkeitsverteilungen mit Hilfe von Poisson-Verteilungen für irgendeine Station in den Niederlanden im Bereich von 30k1800 gültig ist. Eine Karte mit Isoplethen der -Werte fürk=360 ergibt ein einfaches Bild, aus dem für jede beliebige Station ein -Wert fürk=360 abgelesen werden kann. Für eine solche Darstellung muß auch die Niederschlagsmenge derk-tägigen Perioden bekannt sein; diese Werte erhält man aus monatlichen Isohyeten-Karten, die die monatliche Niederschlagsverteilung wiedergeben.
Résumé On avait développé une méthode pour représenter d'une façon simple les distributions des sommes cumulées dek jours (30k1800) des quantités de précipitations déduites des observations faites à Hoofddorp pendant 87 ans et à Winterswijk pendant 73 ans. On avait démontré que la constante de Poisson ne dépend dek que linéairement et que l'unité de Poissonq est proportionnelle à la variation annuelle.De la présente étude ressort que, dans l'intervalle de 30k1800, la représentation des distributions des fréquences cumulées observées au moyen des formules de Poisson est valable pour une station quelconque aux Pays-Bas. Une carte d'isoplèthes de la valeur pourk=360 donne une image suffisamment simple pour que la valeur d'une station quelconque aux Pays-Bas puisse être déterminée sans difficulté. Pour une telle représentation il faut connaître également les moyennes des quantités des périodes dek jours de la précipitation. Ces valeurs peuvent se déduire de cartes mensuelles des isohyètes moyennes.

With 1 Figure

Dedicated to Dr.Anders K. Ångström on the occasion of his 70th birthday.  相似文献   

9.
Measurements of the appropriate parameters for the calculation of the latent heat flux over a black spruce forest in northern Quebec were carried out in August, 1980. Values of the Priestley-Taylor parameter, , were derived by exploiting the Bowen-ratio-energy-balance (BREB) technique. Derived values of are then related to synoptic-scale warm air advection, derived from surface synoptic charts and tephigrams of the planetary boundary layer. It is found that when warm air advection is present, > 1.26, especially when the surface is wet. When advection enhancement is removed, however, values of approach unity. A new approach to calculating the latent heat flux, when warm air advection is present, is therefore proposed.  相似文献   

10.
An energy budget model is used to study the effect on Arctic climate of optically active aerosol in the Arctic atmosphere. The dependence of the change in surface temperature on the vertical distribution of the aerosol and on the radiative properties of the aerosol-free atmosphere, the Arctic surface, and the aerosol, itself, are calculated. An extensive sensitivity analysis is performed to assess the degree to which the results of the model are dependent upon the assumptions underlying it.List of Symbols Used I 0 Solar flux at the top of the Arctic Atmosphere (Arctic here means 70° N latitude to the pole) - a S Surface albedo of the Arctic (a S c is the value of surface albedo at which the sign of the surface temperature perturbation changes) - Reflection coefficient of the aerosol-free Arctic atmosphere - Absorption coefficient of the aerosol-free Arctic atmosphere - Transmission coefficient of the aerosol-free Arctic atmosphere - RI 0 Total flux of sunlight reflected from the Arctic - A A I 0 Total flux of sunlight absorbed in the Arctic atmosphere - A S I 0 Total flux of sunlight absorbed at the Arctic surface - A aer I 0 Total flux of sunlight absorbed in the Arctic aerosol - Q A Net atmospheric flow of energy, per unit of Arctic surface area, north across 70° N latitude - Q S Net oceanic flow of energy, per unit of Arctic surface area, north across 70° N latitude - E Convective plus latent heat fluxes from surface to atmosphere - F A Net flow of energy to the Arctic atmosphere - F S Net flow of energy to the Arctic surface - T A An effective temperature of the Arctic atmosphere - T S Surface temperature of the Arctic - w Single-scattering albedo of the aerosol - t Optical depth of the aerosol - g Fraction of incident radiation scattered forward by the aerosol - Reflection coefficient of the aerosol - Absorption coefficient of the aerosol - Transmission coefficient of the aerosol - p,q Number of atmospheric layers and the inverse of the fraction of incident IR absorbed in each layer in the energy budget model - F,G,H Measures of the amount of IR-active atmosphere above the surface, the aerosol, and the clouds  相似文献   

11.
A general relation between the Kolmogorov (1) and von Kármán (k) constants appropriate to flows in the surface boundary layer is obtained by including stability and divergence dependent terms in the development. The result is used to show that the author's earlier inference of the valuek = 0.36 drawn from the observed value ,k 4/3=0.141 cannot have been underestimated due to the neglect of stability or divergence effects. It is concluded that if k is to be 0.4, then 1 must be 0.5.Work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration.  相似文献   

12.
Observations over grassland of the turbulent kinetic energy in a band of frequencies in the inertial subrange of the spectrum of the streamwise wind component are related to the stress indicated by the wind profiles. The object is to determine the effective Kolmogoroff constant, UB , which accords with the assumption of balance between turbulent energy production and dissipation. The mean from 60 half-hour runs made under stability conditions ranging from neutral to moderate instability is UB = 0.62.This result is compared with those from other studies; four over grassland and six over the sea or a lake. There is no significant difference between the means of the land and sea values, but the latter are more scattered, partly because of difficulties in securing suitable exposure of the instruments for the stress measurements. The mean value from all ten sets of observations is UB = 0.59 ± 0.025. So the dissipation method should be capable of giving the drag coefficient of the sea in strong winds with an uncertainty of no more than about 10%.  相似文献   

13.
The design and performance of a smog chamber for the study of photochemical reactions under simulated environmental conditions is described. The chamber is thermostated for aerosol experiments, and it comprises a gas chromatographic sample enrichment system suitable for monitoring hydrocarbons at the ppbv level. By irradiating NO x /alkane-mixtures rate constants for the reaction of OH radicals with n-alkanes are determined from n-pentane to n-hexadecane to be (k±2)/10–12 cm3 s–1=4.29±0.16, 6.2±0.6, 7.52 (reference value), 8.8±0.3, 10.2±0.3, 11.7±0.4, 13.7±0.3, 15.1±0.5, 17.5±0.6, 19.3±0.7, 22.3±1.0, and 25.0±1.3, respectively at 312 K. Rate constants, (k±2)/10–17 cm3 s–1, for the reaction of ozone with trans-2-butene (21.2±1.0), cis-3-methylpentene-(2) (47.2±1.7), cyclopentene (62.4±3.5), cyclohexene (7.8±0.5), cycloheptene (28.3±1.5), -pinene (8.6±1.3), and -pinene (1.4±0.2) are determined in the dark at 297 K using cis-2-butene (13.0) as reference standard.  相似文献   

14.
In this paper, a model simulating the effects of topography and altitude on precipitation is presented. Topography has its maximum effect on precipitation when the angle which the wind makes with the slope direction approaches zero and the inclination of the slope is near 45°. The smaller the angle , the greater the influence of slope on precipitation. When <45°, the larger the inclination, the greater the influence of slope on precipitation and the less the difference in precipitation between the windward and the leeward slopes. When <45°, the reverse holds. But for in the range of 0°–45° and in the range 30°–60°, differences in precipitation on both the windward and leeward slopes are not so well marked and can be neglected in general. In condition of uniform slope inclination, precipitation on the windward slope increases with altitude at first and then decreases after attaining a height (H m ) of maximum precipitation; alsoH m is greater, the drier the air mass. When the terrain on the windward side is stepped in shape, it is possible that more than one height of maximum precipitation will occur.  相似文献   

15.
It is shown that the observationally determined roughness relation z 0 = u * 2/g in which g is the acceleration of gravity, u *, is the friction velocity in air, and = 0.0185 (Wu, 1982) for the wind profile over the sea surface relative to the surface current, is consistent with the existence of a Richardson Number criterion at the air-sea interface in which the critical Richardson Number, Ric = 1, such that all the shear energy is converted into potential energy.  相似文献   

16.
The photooxidation of -humulene in the presence of NOx, natural sunlight, and rural background air was investigated using a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Identification and quantification of gas and particulate reaction products were reported over the course of the reaction. The daytime photooxidation was carried out in a large outdoor smog chamber (190 m3). A wide range of ring retaining and ring opening products in the gas and particle phase are reported. On average, measured gas and particle phase products accounted for 44% of the reacted -humulene carbon. Measurements show that a number of reaction products with low vapor pressures (e.g. 3-seco--humulone aldehyde, 7-seco--humulone aldehyde, -humulal aldehyde, -humulene 3-oxide or -humulene 7-oxide, -humulaic/alic acid isomers, and 3-seco--14-hydroxyhumulone aldehyde) were found in the early stage of the reaction and may play an important role in the early formation of secondary organic aerosol. A detailed mechanism is proposed to account for most products observed in this investigation.  相似文献   

17.
A meandering plume model that explicitly incorporates the effects of small-scale structure in the instantaneous plume has been formulated. The model requires the specification of two physically based input parameters; namely, the meander ratio,M, which is dependent on the ratio of the meandering plume dispersion to the instantaneous relative plume dispersion and, a relative in-plume fluctuation measure,k, that is related inversely to the fluctuation intensity in relative coordinates. Simple analytical expressions for crosswind profiles of the higher moments (including the important shape parameters such as fluctuation intensity, skewness, and kurtosis) and for the concentration pdf have been derived from the model. The model has been tested against some field data sets, indicating that it can reproduce many key aspects of the observed behavior of concentration fluctuations, particularly with respect to modeling the change in shape of the concentration pdf in the crosswind direction.List of Symbols C Mean concentration in absolute coordinates - C r Mean concentration in relative coordinates - C0 Centerline mean concentration in absolute coordinates - C r,0 Centerline mean concentration in relative coordinates - f Probability density function of concentration in absolute coordinates - f c Probability density function of plume centroid position - f r Probability density function of concentration in relative coordinates - i Absolute concentration fluctuation intensity (standard deviation to mean ratio) - i r Relative concentration fluctuation intensity (standard deviation to mean ratio) - k Relative in-plume fluctuation measure:k=1/i r 2 - K Concentration fluctuation kurtosis - M Meander ratio of meandering plume variance to relative plume variance - S Concentration fluctuation skewness - x Downwind distance from source - y Crosswind distance from mean-plume centerline - z Vertical distance above ground - Instantaneous (random) concentration - Crosswind dispersion ofnth concentration moment about zero - ny Mean-plume crosswind (absolute) dispersion - y Plume centroid (meandering) dispersion in crosswind direction - y,c Instantaneous plume crosswind (relative) dispersion - Normalized mean concentration in absolute coordinates:C/C 0 - Particular value taken on by instantaneous concentration,   相似文献   

18.
Beljaars et al. (1987) developed a model for neutrally stratified boundary-layer flow over roughness changes and topography. It has been discovered that a constant parameter, , was missing in the algebraic-stress closure equations of their paper. This omission also occurred in the MSFD model code but only affects the Askervein Hill shear-stress results for the E-- turbulence closure in Beljaars et al. It also changes the stress results of Karpik (1988), but not his conclusions regarding the robustness of his improved numerical scheme. The present paper demonstrates the effect of the omission of the parameter, , and tests the sensitivity of the model to variations in its value. The new results are compared with the data and model results of Zeman and Jensen (1987).  相似文献   

19.
Summary The variations of ten year's hourly temperature averages on Mt. Washington, N. H., are investigated. The results, especially the unexpected ones, are compared with the respective data for the Sonnblick Observatory (Austrian Alps) in order to distinguish between reality and chance.Sonnblick is 3911 ft higher than Mt. Washington. Nevertheless, the latter is on the average 3.2 Fdeg colder in winter. An explanation by means of air mass is suggested. Hourly deviations from ten year's monthly and yearly averages are given in Table 3. Table 4 shows the average daily temperature ranges for Mt. Washington, Sonnblick and Obir (Austria). The comparison of the average daily range on freely exposed summits, at stations in the plain, and those in valleys shows that the daily range is independent of elevation as far as surface bound places are concerned. On free, isolated summits the daily range depends upon conditions of average air exchange, cloudiness, latitude, and the size and local physical conditions of the summit surface involved in the air heating processes.Although the curve representing the average diurnal temperature variation for a month is of more or less complex nature, Fourier series are used for the analysis, in oder to get some insight into the relations between the semi-diurnal pressure wave and the half-day temperature wave. The harmonic constants (for the months and year) appear in Table 6; the times of the maxima for the first and the second harmonic term in Table 7. The phase angle of the first term,A 1, shows a quite unexpected behavior. Although the observed variation ofA 1 in the course of the year could not be explained by means of the available material, the reality of the phenomenon could be demonstrated by a good parallelism of the variations on Mt. Washington and on Sonnblick. For Mt. Washington the annual variation of the amplitude 1 can be represented by a simple sine curve. On Sonnblick, a kinked line consisting of three rectilinear sections shows the annual variation of 1, with good approximation. The different physical conditions of the surface of the two summits offer a clear explanation. Random samples make it likely that the Fourier series representing the diurnal variation of temperature on mountain summits show a rapid convergence so that the oscillation is described by the first two terms with sufficient accuracy. On the average for the year, the maximum of the second term (nearest to noon) occurs at 13.3 h on Mt. Washington, and at 13.5 h on Sonnblick. Theannual variation of 2 shows maxima at the equinoxes on both summits. The amplitude 2 is quasi-constant relative to 1, the amplitude of the first harmonic. SinceA 2 (phase angle of the second term) is less variable than isA 1, theentire second harmonic is less variable than is the first harmonic. In December, the magnitude of 2 is practically the same as that of 1 on Mt. Washington while on Sonnblick in the same month 2 reaches 59% of 1. In summer, the ratio 2/1 is at a minimum on both mountains. Altogether, the various facts mentioned above support the assumption that the second harmonic of the diurnal temperature variation on freely exposed summits has its independent, special physical significance. In contrast to the first, the static harmonic, which is almost exclusively produced by radiation processes, the second harmonic appears to be due to dynamic causes.All indications point to the idea that on freely exposed summits in middle latitudes the semidiurnal temperature oscillation is a consequence of the westward moving half-day pressure wave and is steered by it, aside from other possible factors that are difficult to appraise.
Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Untersuchung befaßt sich mit den Schwankungen zehnjähriger Stundenmittel der Temperatur auf dem Mt. Washington. Besonders die unerwarteten Resultate werden mit den Beobachtungen auf dem Sonnblick-Observatorium verglichen, um Realität und Zufall zu unterscheiden.Der Sonnblick ist 1192 m höher als der Mt. Washington und trotzdem ist der letztere noch im Wintermittel um 1,8° C kälter. Eine Luftmassenerklärung scheint naheliegend. In Tabelle 3 werden die Abweichungen der Stundenmittel von den zehnjährigen Monats- und Jahresmitteln gegeben. Tabelle 4 enthält die mittlere Tagesschwankung der Temperatur für Mt. Washington, Sonnblick und Obir. Der Vergleich der mittleren Tagesschwankung auf frei exponierten Gipfeln mit der in der Ebene und in Tälern zeigt, daß die Größe der Tagesschwankung unabhängig von der Höhe ist, soweit Stationen an der Erdoberfläche in Betracht kommen. Auf freien Gipfeln hängt die Tagesschwankung von der Größe des Luftaustausches, der Bewölkung, der Breite und von der Größe und den physikalischen Eigenschaften der Gipfeloberfläche ab, soweit sie in den Erwärmungsprozeß der Luft im Bereich der Beobachtungsstation einbezogen erscheint.Obwohl die Kurve, die den mittleren monatlichen Tagesgang der Temperatur darstellt, komplexer Natur ist, wurde eine Analyse mittels Fourierscher Reihen gewählt, vor allem, um einigen Einblick in die Beziehungen zwischen der Halbtagswelle des Luftdrucks und der der Temperatur zu erhalten. Die harmonischen Konstanten für Monat und Jahr erscheinen in Tabelle 6, die Zeiten der Maxima des ersten und zweiten harmonischen Terms in Tabelle 7. Der PhasenwinkelA 1 (des ersten Terms) zeigt ein ganz unerwartetes Verhalten. Die am Mt. Washington gefundene Form der Jahresschwankung vonA 1 ist mit Hilfe des vorliegenden Materials wohl nicht erklärbar. DieRealität der Schwankungsform scheint jedoch kaum zweifelhaft, da die Schwankungen auf dem Mt. Washington und auf dem Sonnblick, bei geeigneter Wahl der Skalen im Diagramm, einen weitgehenden Parallelismus zeigen. Derjährliche Gang der Amplitude 1 wird für den Mt. Washington durch eine einfache Sinuskurve wiedergegeben. Auf dem Sonnblick ist es eine aus drei Geraden zusammengesetzte Linie, die die analoge Schwankung mit guter Genauigkeit darstellt. Die verschiedenen physikalischen Eigenschaften der beiden Gipfeloberflächen erlauben eine ausreichende Erklärung. Stichproben zeigen, daß die Fourier-Reihen so rasch konvergieren, daß der Tagesgang der Temperatur auf Berggipfeln durch die ersten zwei Glieder mit genügender Genauigkeit wiedergegeben wird. Im Mittel des Jahres tritt das (mittagnächste) Maximum des zweiten Terms auf dem Mt. Washington um 13,3, auf dem Sonnblick um 13,5 ein. DieJahresschwankung von 2(Halbtagsamplitude) erreicht auf beiden Gipfeln ihre Maxima zu den Aequinoktien. 2 ist relativ zu 1 quasikonstant. Da nunA 2 (Phasenwinkel des zweiten Terms) weiniger variabel ist alsA 1, so zeigt das ganze zweite Glied eine kleinere Veränderlichkeit als das erste. Auf dem Mt. Washington kommt 2 im Dezember praktisch der Größe von 1 gleich, auf dem Sonnblick werden im gleichen Monat 59% von 1 erreicht. Die angeführten Tatsachen sprechen für die Annahme, daß derzweite harmonische Term der Tagesschwankung der Temperatur auf frei exponierten Gipfeln seineselbständige physikalische Bedeutung hat. Im Gegensatz zum ersten, dem statischen Term, der beinahe ausschließlich durch Strahlungsprozesse hervorgerufen wird, mag der zweite Term seine Existenz dynamischen Ursachen zu verdanken haben.Alle Anzeichen sprechen dafür, daß auf freigelegenen Gipfeln der mittleren Breiten die Halbtags-Oszillation der Temperatur, abgesehen von anderen, schwer abzuschätzenden Faktoren, eine Folge der westwärts wandernden Halbtagswelle des Luftdrucks ist und von ihr gesteuert wird.
Résumé La présente étude porte sur les variations des moyennes de dix ans des températures horaires au Mt. Washington. Les résultats particulièrement les inattendus sont comparés aux observations du Sonnblick pour distinguer la réalité du hasard. Ce dernier observatoire est situé 1192 m plus haut que Mt. Washington, et celui-ci est pourtant plus froid de 1,8° en hiver; une différence de masse d'air semble en être la cause. Le tableau 3 contient les écarts des moyennes horaires par rapport aux moyennes décennales mensuelles et annuelles. Le tableau 4 illustre l'amplitude diurne moyenne de température au Mt. Washington, au Sonnblick et à l'Obir. La comparaison de l'amplitude diurne moyenne de la température entre des sommets assez isolés et la plaine, et les vallées montre que cette amplitude est indépendante de l'altitude pour autant qu'il s'agisse de stations attachés au sol. Sur les sommets, la variation diurne dépend de l'échange turbulent, de la nébulosité, de la latitude, de l'étendue et des propriétés physiques de la surface des sommets, à mesure que cette dernière intervienne dans le processus du réchauffement de l'air au voisinage de la station d'observation.Bien que la courbe mensuelle moyenne de la variation diurne de température soit complexe, elle est dévelopée en séries de Fourier, particulièrement dans le but d'examiner les relations entre les ondes semi-diurnes de pression atmosphérique et celles de la température. Le tableau 6 contient les constantes harmoniques pour les mois et l'année, le tableau 7 les temps des maxima du premier et du deuxième termes. La phaseA 1 a un comportement inattendu; la forme de sa variation annuelle au Mt. Washington ne peut pas s'expliquer au moyen d'observations usées ici mais sa réalité ne peut pas être mise en doute; car la comparaison avec le Sonnblick démontre un parallélisme accentué, si les echelles du diagramme sont choisies proprement. La marche annuelle de l'amplitude 1 se représente au Mt. Washington par une sinusoïde simple; au Sonnblick elle se compose de trois droites reproduisant la marche analogue. Les différent caractères physiques des surfaces des deux sommets expliquent aisément les divergences. Il est démontré que les séries de Fourier convergent si rapidement que deux termes suffisent pour représenter assez exactement la variation diurne de la température aux stations des sommets. En moyenne de l'année, le maximum du deuxième terme (le plus près du midi), apparaît à 13,3 h au Mt. Washington et à 13,5 h au Sonnblick. La variation annuelle de 2 atteint le maximum aux équinoxes pour les deux sommets. 2 est quasi-constant par rapport à 1. CommeA 2 varie moins queA 1, l'entier deuxième terme a une variabilité plus petite que premier. Au Mt. Washington, 2 est presque égal à 1 en décembre; au Sonnblick, ce sont 59% de 1 au même mois. Les faits cités conduisent à admettre que le deuxième terme harmonique de la variation diurne de la température aux sommets assez isolés a une signification physique propre; au contraire du premier terme, lestatique, presque exclusivement causé par le rayonnement, le second terme doit son origine à des causesdynamiques.Tout porte à conclure qu' aux sommets assez isolés dans les latitudes moyennes, — sans compter d'autres facteurs difficiles à déceler —, la variation semi-diurne de la température est causée et dirigée par l'onde semi-diurne de la pression atmosphérique progressant vers l'Ouest.

With 5 Figures  相似文献   

20.
Diurnal and vertical ambient air measurements of the monoterpenes have been made in and above a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest of central Sweden, within the boreal northern coniferous biome. Sampling was done with Tenax TA, and analysis by GC and ion trap detection. Daytime mixing ratios were on the order of tenths of a ppbv from the forest floor to the top of the forest, and a factor of 2 or 3 lower above the forest. Mixing ratios at night were at the ppbv level, highest near the forest floor and the crown, and decreased with height above the forest. The highest total concentration observed was 8 ppbv inside the forest at 3 am (GMT). The average terpene composition was 3-carene 32%, -pinene 29%, limonene 18%, -pinene 10%, -phellandrene 7%, camphene 5%, and sabinene at less than 2%. The 3-carene/-pinene ratio varied with wind direction and speed, relative humidity, and wet/dry vegetation, but not with ozone or NO2 concentration, solar radiation, or temperature. Variations in the observed terpene composition at the sampling site are mainly caused by the influence of other vegetation in the vicinity of the site. It would seem that wet Scots pine emits more 3-carene relative to -pinene than does dry pine.  相似文献   

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