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1.
A sedimentary formation perturbated by supercritical CO2 reacts by dissolving primary minerals and forming new secondary phases. In this process CO2 may be trapped in stable carbonate minerals and may thereby be immobilized for long time spans. The potential for mineral trapping can be estimated by solving kinetic expressions for the reservoir minerals and possible secondary phases. This is, however, not trivial as kinetic data are uncertain or even lacking for the minerals of interest. Here, the rate equations most commonly used for CO2 storage simulations have been solved, and the rate parameters varied, to obtain sensitivity on the total amount of CO2 stored as mineral carbonate. As various expressions are in use to estimate growth rates of secondary carbonates, three formulations were compared, including one taking into account mineral nucleation preceding growth. The sensitivity studies were done on two systems, the Utsira Sand being representative for a cold quartz-rich sand (37 °C, 100 bar CO2), and the Gulf Coast Sediment, being representative for a medium temperature quartz–plagioclase-rich system (75 °C, 300 bar CO2).The simulations showed that the total predicted CO2 mineral storage is especially sensitive to the choice of growth rate model and the reactive surface area. The largest sensitivity was found on α, fraction of total surface area available for reactions, with a reduction of one order of magnitude for all reacting phases leading to 3–4 times lower predicted CO2 mineral storage. Because the reactive surface area is highly uncertain for natural systems, the range in predicted results may be even larger. The short-term predictions (<100–1000 a), such as the onset of carbonate growth, were highly sensitive to nucleation and growth rates. Moreover, the type of carbonate minerals formed was shown to be model dependent, with the simplest model predicting an unlikely carbonate assemblage at low temperature (i.e., formation of dolomite at 37 °C). Therefore, to use kinetic models to upscale short-term (<months) laboratory experiments in time, to identify the past reactions and physical conditions of natural CO2 storage analogues, and finally to predict the potential for CO2 trapping in existing and future storage projects, more knowledge has to be collected, especially on the reactive surface area of CO2 storage reservoirs, and on the rate of secondary carbonate nucleation and growth.  相似文献   

2.
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3.
A long-term (up to 10 ka) geochemical change in saline aquifer CO2 storage was studied using the TOUGHREACT simulator, on a 2-dimensional, 2-layered model representing the underground geologic and hydrogeologic conditions of the Tokyo Bay area that is one of the areas of the largest CO2 emissions in the world. In the storage system characterized by low permeability of reservoir and cap rock, the dominant storage mechanism is found to be solubility trapping that includes the dissolution and dissociation of injected CO2 in the aqueous phase followed by geochemical reactions to dissolve minerals in the rocks. The CO2–water–rock interaction in the storage system (mainly in the reservoir) changes the properties of water in a mushroom-like CO2 plume, which eventually leads to convective mixing driven by gravitational instability. The geochemically evolved aqueous phase precipitates carbonates in the plume front due to a local rise in pH with mixing of unaffected reservoir water. The carbonate precipitation occurs extensively within the plume after the end of its enlargement, fixing injected CO2 in a long, geologic period.Dawsonite, a Na–Al carbonate, is initially formed throughout the plume from consumption of plagioclase in the reservoir rock, but is found to be a transient phase finally disappearing from most of the CO2-affected part of the system. The mineral is unstable relative to more common types of carbonates in the geochemical evolution of the CO2 storage system initially having formation water of relatively low salinity. The exception is the reservoir-cap rock boundary where CO2 saturation remains very high throughout the simulation period.  相似文献   

4.
Deep saline aquifers in sedimentary basins are considered to have the greatest potential for CO2 geological storage in order to reduce carbon emissions. CO2 injected into a saline sandstone aquifer tends to migrate upwards toward the caprock because the density of the supercritical CO2 phase is lower than that of formation water. The accumulated CO2 in the upper portions of the reservoir gradually dissolves into brine, lowers pH and changes the aqueous complexation, whereby induces mineral alteration. In turn, the mineralogical composition could impose significant effects on the evolution of solution, further on the mineralized CO2. The high density of aqueous phase will then move downward due to gravity, give rise to “convective mixing,” which facilitate the transformation of CO2 from the supercritical phase to the aqueous phase and then to the solid phase. In order to determine the impacts of mineralogical compositions on trapping amounts in different mechanisms for CO2 geological storage, a 2D radial model was developed. The mineralogical composition for the base case was taken from a deep saline formation of the Ordos Basin, China. Three additional models with varying mineralogical compositions were carried out. Results indicate that the mineralogical composition had very obvious effects on different CO2 trapping mechanisms. Specific to our cases, the dissolution of chlorite provided Mg2+ and Fe2+ for the formation of secondary carbonate minerals (ankerite, siderite and magnesite). When chlorite was absent in the saline aquifer, the dominant secondary carbon sequestration mineral was dawsonite, and the amount of CO2 mineral trapping increased with an increase in the concentration of chlorite. After 3000 years, 69.08, 76.93, 83.52 and 87.24 % of the injected CO2 can be trapped in the solid (mineral) phase, 16.05, 11.86, 8.82 and 6.99 % in the aqueous phase, and 14.87, 11.21, 7.66 and 5.77 % in the gas phase for Case 1 through 4, respectively.  相似文献   

5.
Accurate measurements to assess the influence of soil moisture on CO2 flux requires the absolute estimates of soil CO2 flux. Thus, it was constructed a calibration system where CO2 with fixed concentration flowed through the different porous material. Previous to measurement, in order to verify the performance and reliability of a closed dynamic chamber, different discontinuous air-mixing rates and times were tested. The CO2 flux was estimated through sequential lectures and the best fit for flux measurements was obtained taking short readings every 3 min, during a total time of 12 min (R 2 = 0.99). The best mixing rate was attained for 250 mL min−1, allowing 25 s of mixing previous to CO2 extraction for an infrared gas analyzer. The deviation of the measured values for dry sand from the reference CO2 flux (0.097 and 0.071 g m−2 min−1) was 5 and 7%. On dry sandy loam soil (SLS) the deviation was 2%. The measured fluxes decreased 73 and 22% with content moisture of 20 and 10% (sand), and 78% with content moisture of 31% (SLS). This work allowed to estimate how much the measured emission rates deviate from the true ones for the specified chamber and sampling conditions.  相似文献   

6.
The probability that storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) in deep geologic formations will become an important climate change mitigation strategy depends on a number of factors, namely (1) public acceptance, (2) the cost of geologic storage compared to other climate change mitigation options, and (3) the availability, capacity, and location of suitable sites. Whether or not a site is suitable will be determined by establishing that it can meet a set of performance requirements for safe and effective geologic storage. To date, no such performance requirements have been developed. Establishing effective requirements must start with an evaluation of how much CO2 might be stored and for how long the CO2 must remain underground to meet goals for controlling atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Answers to these questions provide a context for setting performance requirements for geologic storage projects.According to the results presented here, geologic storage could be an effective method to ease the transition away from a fossil-fuel based economy over the next several centuries, even if large amounts of CO2 are stored and some small fraction seeps from storage reservoirs back into the atmosphere. An annual seepage rate of 0.01% or 10-4/year would ensure the effectiveness of geologic carbon storage for any of the projected sequestration scenarios explored herein, even those with the largest amounts of storage (1,000 s of gigatonnes of carbon-GtC), and still provide some safety margin. Storing smaller amounts of carbon (10 s to 100 s of GtC) may allow for a slightly higher seepage rate on the order of 0.1% or 10-3/year. Based on both the large capacity of geologic storage formation and the likelihood of achieving leakage rates much lower than the rates estimated here, geologic storage appears to be a promising mitigation strategy.  相似文献   

7.
A screening and ranking framework (SRF) has been developed to evaluate potential geologic carbon dioxide (CO2) storage sites on the basis of health, safety, and environmental (HSE) risk arising from CO2 leakage. The approach is based on the assumption that CO2 leakage risk is dependent on three basic characteristics of a geologic CO2 storage site: (1) the potential for primary containment by the target formation; (2) the potential for secondary containment if the primary formation leaks; and (3) the potential for attenuation and dispersion of leaking CO2 if the primary formation leaks and secondary containment fails. The framework is implemented in a spreadsheet in which users enter numerical scores representing expert opinions or published information along with estimates of uncertainty. Applications to three sites in California demonstrate the approach. Refinements and extensions are possible through the use of more detailed data or model results in place of property proxies.  相似文献   

8.
In this paper, we analyze the time scales associated with instable fingering induced by density contrasts in miscible displacement porous media flow. We perform numerical simulations of a two-dimensional domain with boundaries that are closed to flow and identify the three regimes of the dynamics, namely the development of a stable diffusive boundary layer, the onset and growth of instabilities, and the fully nonlinear dynamics. Special focus is given to the onset of the fully nonlinear regime. The results are generic in the sense that there are no parameters in the non-dimensional model problem. Large ensembles are studied and an error estimate is given based on the combined effect of numerical errors and sampling errors. The nonlinear time scales show a dependence on the size of initial perturbations. We estimate this size for three formations used for CO2 storage and find that the onset of enhanced convective mixing is considerably delayed compared with the linear onset time.  相似文献   

9.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is one of the effective means to deal with global warming, and saline aquifer storage is considered to be the most promising storage method. Junggar Basin, located in the northern part of Xinjiang and with a large distribution area of saline aquifer, is an effective carbon storage site. Based on well logging data and 2D seismic data, a 3D heterogeneous geological model of the Cretaceous Donggou Formation reservoir near D7 well was constructed, and dynamic simulations under two scenarios of single-well injection and multi-well injection were carried out to explore the storage potential and CO2 storage mechanism of deep saline aquifer with real geological conditions in this study. The results show that within 100 km2 of the saline aquifer of Donggou Formation in the vicinity of D7 well, the theoretical static CO2 storage is 71.967 × 106 tons (P50)①, and the maximum dynamic CO2 storage is 145.295 × 106 tons (Case2). The heterogeneity of saline aquifer has a great influence on the spatial distribution of CO2 in the reservoir. The multi-well injection scenario is conducive to the efficient utilization of reservoir space and safer for storage. Based on the results from theoretical static calculation and the dynamic simulation, the effective coefficient of CO2 storage in deep saline aquifer in the eastern part of Xinjiang is recommended to be 4.9%. This study can be applied to the engineering practice of CO2 sequestration in the deep saline aquifer in Xinjiang.  相似文献   

10.
Release of CO2 from surface ocean water owing to precipitation of CaCO3 and the imbalance between biological production of organic matter and its respiration, and their net removal from surface water to sedimentary storage was studied by means of a quotient θ = (CO2 flux to the atmosphere)/(CaCO3 precipitated). θ depends not only on water temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration but also on the CaCO3 and organic carbon masses formed. In CO2 generation by CaCO3 precipitation, θ varies from a fraction of 0.44 to 0.79, increasing with decreasing temperature (25 to 5°C), increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration (195–375 ppmv), and increasing CaCO3 precipitated mass (up to 45% of the initial DIC concentration in surface water). Primary production and net storage of organic carbon counteracts the CO2 production by carbonate precipitation and it results in lower CO2 emissions from the surface layer. When atmospheric CO2 increases due to the ocean-to-atmosphere flux rather than remaining constant, the amount of CO2 transferred is a non-linear function of the surface layer thickness because of the back-pressure of the rising atmospheric CO2. For a surface ocean layer approximated by a 50-m-thick euphotic zone that receives input of inorganic and organic carbon from land, the calculated CO2 flux to the atmosphere is a function of the CaCO3 and Corg net storage rates. In general, the carbonate storage rate has been greater than that of organic carbon. The CO2 flux near the Last Glacial Maximum is 17 to 7×1012 mol/yr (0.2–0.08 Gt C/yr), reflecting the range of organic carbon storage rates in sediments, and for pre-industrial time it is 38–42×1012 mol/yr (0.46–0.50 Gt C/yr). Within the imbalanced global carbon cycle, our estimates indicate that prior to anthropogenic emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere the land organic reservoir was gaining carbon and the surface ocean was losing carbon, calcium, and total alkalinity owing to the CaCO3 storage and consequent emission of CO2. These results are in agreement with the conclusions of a number of other investigators. As the CO2 uptake in mineral weathering is a major flux in the global carbon cycle, the CO2 weathering pathway that originates in the CO2 produced by remineralization of soil humus rather than by direct uptake from the atmosphere may reduce the relatively large imbalances of the atmosphere and land organic reservoir at 102–104-year time scales.  相似文献   

11.
Underground geological storage of CO2 in deep saline aquifers is considered for reducing greenhouse gases emissions into the atmosphere. However, some issues were raised with regard to the potential hazards to shallow groundwater resources from CO2 leakage, brine displacement and pressure build-up. An overview is provided of the current scientific knowledge pertaining to the potential impact on shallow groundwater resources of geological storage of CO2 in deep saline aquifers, identifying knowledge gaps for which original research opportunities are proposed. Two main impacts are defined and discussed therein: the near-field impact due to the upward vertical migration of free-phase CO2 to surficial aquifers, and the far-field impact caused by large-scale displacement of formation waters by the injected CO2. For the near-field, it is found that numerical studies predict possible mobilization of trace elements but concentrations are rarely above the maximum limit for potable water. For the far-field, numerical studies predict only minor impacts except for some specific geological conditions such as high caprock permeability. Despite important knowledge gaps, the possible environmental impacts of geological storage of CO2 in deep saline aquifers on shallow groundwater resources appears to be low, but much more work is required to evaluate site specific impacts.  相似文献   

12.
Convective mixing of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) with formation brine has been shown to be a significant factor for the rate of dissolution of CO2 and thus for determining the viability of geological CO2 storage sites. In most previous convection investigations, a no-flow boundary condition was used to represent the interface between an upper region with CO2 and brine and the single-phase brine region beneath. However, due to interfacial tension between the phases, the water phase is partly mobile in the upper region and advection may occur. Based on linear stability analysis and numerical simulations, we show that advection across the interface leads to considerable destabilization of the system. In particular, the time of onset of instability is reduced by a factor of two and the rate of dissolution is enhanced by a factor of two for three of four formations we consider, and by 40 % for the fourth formation. It is found that exponential decay of the relative permeability away from the interface provides a useful approximation to the real system. In addition, the exponential decay also simplifies the linear stability analysis. Interestingly, formations with large absolute permeability and small porosity have the largest impact from the transition zone, despite the fact that the relative permeability decays quickly above the interface in these formations. This is because the length-scale of instability is smallest in these formations.  相似文献   

13.
The utilization of anthropogenic CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) can significantly extend the production life of an oil field, and help in the reduction of atmospheric emission of anthropogenic CO2 if sequestration is considered. This work summarizes the prospect of EOR and sequestration using CO2 flooding from an Indian mature oil field at Cambay basin through numerical modelling, simulation and pressure study based on limited data provided by the operator. To get an insight into CO2-EOR and safe storage process in this oil field, a conceptual sector model is developed and screening standard is proposed keeping in mind the major pay zone of the producing reservoir. To construct the geomodel, depth maps, well positions and coordinates, well data and well logs, perforation depths and distribution of petrophysical properties as well as fluid properties provided by the operator, has been considered. Based on the results from the present study, we identified that the reservoir has the potential for safe and economic geological sequestration of 15.04×106 metric ton CO2 in conjunction with a substantial increase in oil recovery of 10.4% of original oil in place. CO2-EOR and storage in this mature field has a bright application prospect since the findings of the present work could be a better input to manage the reservoir productivity, and the pressure field for significant enhancement of oil recovery followed by safe storage.  相似文献   

14.
Continental flood basalts (CFB) are considered as potential CO2 storage sites because of their high reactivity and abundant divalent metal ions that can potentially trap carbon for geological timescales. Moreover, laterally extensive CFB are found in many place in the world within reasonable distances from major CO2 point emission sources. Based on the mineral and glass composition of the Columbia River Basalt (CRB) we estimated the potential of CFB to store CO2 in secondary carbonates. We simulated the system using kinetic dependent dissolution of primary basalt-minerals (pyroxene, feldspar and glass) and the local equilibrium assumption for secondary phases (weathering products). The simulations were divided into closed-system batch simulations at a constant CO2 pressure of 100?bar with sensitivity studies of temperature and reactive surface area, an evaluation of the reactivity of H2O in scCO2, and finally 1D reactive diffusion simulations giving reactivity at CO2 pressures varying from 0 to 100?bar. Although the uncertainty in reactive surface area and corresponding reaction rates are large, we have estimated the potential for CO2 mineral storage and identified factors that control the maximum extent of carbonation. The simulations showed that formation of carbonates from basalt at 40?C may be limited to the formation of siderite and possibly FeMg carbonates. Calcium was largely consumed by zeolite and oxide instead of forming carbonates. At higher temperatures (60 ?C 100?C), magnesite is suggested to form together with siderite and ankerite. The maximum potential of CO2 stored as solid carbonates, if CO2 is supplied to the reactions unlimited, is shown to depend on the availability of pore space as the hydration and carbonation reactions increase the solid volume and clog the pore space. For systems such as in the scCO2 phase with limited amount of water, the total carbonation potential is limited by the amount of water present for hydration of basalt.  相似文献   

15.
Geochemical detection of carbon dioxide in dilute aquifers   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  

Background  

Carbon storage in deep saline reservoirs has the potential to lower the amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere and to mitigate global warming. Leakage back to the atmosphere through abandoned wells and along faults would reduce the efficiency of carbon storage, possibly leading to health and ecological hazards at the ground surface, and possibly impacting water quality of near-surface dilute aquifers. We use static equilibrium and reactive transport simulations to test the hypothesis that perturbations in water chemistry associated with a CO2 gas leak into dilute groundwater are important measures for the potential release of CO2 to the atmosphere. Simulation parameters are constrained by groundwater chemistry, flow, and lithology from the High Plains aquifer. The High Plains aquifer is used to represent a typical sedimentary aquifer overlying a deep CO2 storage reservoir. Specifically, we address the relationships between CO2 flux, groundwater flow, detection time and distance. The CO2 flux ranges from 103 to 2 × 106 t/yr (0.63 to 1250 t/m2/yr) to assess chemical perturbations resulting from relatively small leaks that may compromise long-term storage, water quality, and surface ecology, and larger leaks characteristic of short-term well failure.  相似文献   

16.
In this paper, we follow a similar procedure as proposed by Koval (SPE J 3(2):145–154, 1963) to analytically model CO2 transfer between the overriding carbon dioxide layer and the brine layer below it. We show that a very thin diffusive layer on top separates the interface from a gravitationally unstable convective flow layer below it. Flow in the gravitationally unstable layer is described by the theory of Koval, a theory that is widely used and which describes miscible displacement as a pseudo two-phase flow problem. The pseudo two-phase flow problem provides the average concentration of CO2 in the brine as a function of distance. We find that downstream of the diffusive layer, the solution of the convective part of the model, is a rarefaction solution that starts at the saturation corresponding to the highest value of the fractional-flow function. The model uses two free parameters, viz., a dilution factor and a gravity fingering index. A comparison of the Koval model with the horizontally averaged concentrations obtained from 2-D numerical simulations provides a correlation for the two parameters with the Rayleigh number. The obtained scaling relations can be used in numerical simulators to account for the density-driven natural convection, which cannot be currently captured because the grid cells are typically orders of magnitude larger than the wavelength of the initial fingers. The method can be applied both for storage of greenhouse gases in aquifers and for EOR processes using carbon dioxide or other solvents.  相似文献   

17.
The Johansen formation is a candidate site for large-scale CO2 storage offshore of the south-western coast of Norway. An overview of the geology for the Johansen formation and neighboring geological formations is given, together with a discussion of issues for geological and geophysical modelling and integrated fluid flow modelling. We further describe corresponding simulation models. Major issues to consider are capacity estimation and processes that could potentially cause CO2 to leak out of the Johansen formation and into the formations above. Currently, these issues can only be investigated through numerical simulation. We consider the effect of different boundary conditions, sensitivity with respect to vertical grid refinement and permeability/transmisibility data, and the effect of residual gas saturations, since these strongly affect the CO2-plume distribution. The geological study of the Johansen formation is performed based on available seismic and well data. Fluid simulations are performed using a commercial simulator capable of modelling CO2 flow and transport by simple manipulation of input files and data. We provide details for the data and the model, with a particular focus on geology and geometry for the Johansen formation. The data set is made available for download online.  相似文献   

18.
The present paper provides a case study of the assessment of the potential for CO2 storage in the deep saline aquifers of the Bécancour region in southern Québec. This assessment was based on a hydrogeological and petrophysical characterization using existing and newly acquired core and well log data from hydrocarbon exploration wells. Analyses of data obtained from different sources provide a good understanding of the reservoir hydrogeology and petrophysics. Profiles of formation pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, porosity, permeability, and net pay were established for Lower Paleozoic sedimentary aquifers. Lateral hydraulic continuity is dominant at the regional scale, whereas vertical discontinuities are apparent for most physical and chemical properties. The Covey Hill sandstone appears as the most suitable saline aquifer for CO2 injection/storage. This unit is found at a depth of more than 1 km and has the following properties: fluid pressures exceed 14 MPa, temperature is above 35 °C, salinity is about 108,500 mg/l, matrix permeability is in the order of 3 × 10?16 m2 (0.3 mDarcy) with expected higher values of formation-scale permeability due to the presence of natural fractures, mean porosity is 6 %, net pay reaches 282 m, available pore volume per surface area is 17 m3/m2, rock compressibility is 2 × 10?9 Pa?1 and capillary displacement pressure of brine by CO2 is about 0.4 MPa. While the containment for CO2 storage in the Bécancour saline aquifers can be ensured by appropriate reservoir characteristics, the injectivity of CO2 and the storage capacity could be limiting factors due to the overall low permeability of aquifers. This characterization offers a solid basis for the subsequent development of a numerical hydrogeological model, which will be used for CO2 injection capacity estimation, CO2 injection scenarios and risk assessment.  相似文献   

19.
This publication provides a literature review on experimental studies of dissolution kinetics of mainly carbonates and feldspar group minerals, i.e. most common minerals at potential CO2-injection and/or storage sites. Geochemical interaction processes between injected CO2 and coexisting phases, namely reservoir and cap rock minerals and formation fluids close to the CO2-injection site can be simulated by flow-through or mixed flow reactors, while processes far from the injection site and long-term processes after termination actual CO2-injection can be mimicked by batch reactors. At sufficient small stirring rates or fluid flow rates as well as low solute concentrations flow-through reactors are also able to simulate processes far from the injection site. The experimental parameter temperature not only intensifies the dissolution process, the dominant dissolution mechanisms are also influenced by temperature. The dissolution mechanisms change from incongruent and surface controlled mechanisms at lower temperatures to congruent and transport controlled mechanisms at higher temperatures. The CO2 partial pressure has only a second order influence on dissolution behavior compared to the influence of pH-value and ionic strength of the CO2-bearing brine. Minerals exposed to CO2-bearing brines at elevated temperatures and pressures are subject of alteration, leading to severe changes of reactive surfaces and potential precipitation of secondary minerals.Computational simulations of mineral reactions at potential CO2 storage sites have therefore to include not only the time-resolved changes of dissolution behavior and hence kinetics of mineral dissolution, but also the influence of secondary minerals on the interaction of the minerals with CO2-enriched brines.  相似文献   

20.
We develop a Riemann solver for transport problems including geochemistry related to oil recovery. The example considered here concerns one-dimensional incompressible flow in porous media and the transport for several chemical components, namely H2O, H+, OH?, CO2, \(\text {CO}_{3}^{2-}\), \(\text {HCO}_{3}^{-}\), and decane; they are in chemical equilibrium in the aqueous and oleic phases, leading to mass transfer of CO2 between the oleic and aqueous phases. In our ionic model, we employ equations with zero diffusion coefficients. We do so because it is well known that for upscaled equations, the convection terms dominate the diffusion terms. The Riemann solution for this model can therefore be applied for upscaled transport processes in enhanced oil recovery involving geochemical aspects. In our example, we formulate the conservation equations of hydrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and decane, in which we substitute regression expressions that are obtained by geochemical software. This can be readily done because Gibbs phase rule together with charge balance shows that all compositions can be rewritten in terms of a single composition, which we choose to be the hydrogen ion concentration (p H). In our example, we use the initial and boundary conditions for the carbonated aqueous phase injection in an oil reservoir containing connate water with some carbon dioxide. We compare the Riemann solution with a numerical solution, which includes capillary and diffusion effects. The significant new contribution is the effective Riemann solver we developed to obtain solutions for oil recovery problems including geochemistry and a variable total Darcy velocity, a situation in which fractional flow theory does not readily apply. We thus obtain an accurate solution for a carbonated waterflood, which elucidates some mechanisms of low salinity carbonated waterflooding.  相似文献   

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