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1.
87Rb87Sr analysis of the Norton County achondrite has been achieved with special attention to the rubidium analysis. Enstatite crystals and polycrystalline material give an “age” of 4.48 ± 0.04 × 109 years and an initial ratio 87Sr/86SrI= 0.7005 ± 0.0004 (λ = 1.39 × 10?11yr?1, maximum errors). The feldspar component of the meteorite contains about 70% of the strontium and 30% of the rubidium of the whole sample, and does not lie on the isochron. Its model age relative to the strontium initial ratio of Allende is 4.6 × 109 years. The data are consistent with a complex history dealing with an incomplete isotopic reequilibration of the meteorite, 120 m.y. after its formation at 4.6 × 109 years, with an initial ratio similar to that of Allende.  相似文献   

2.
87Rb87Sr analyses of LL chondrites have been made in 10 whole rock meteorites, chondrules from Chainpur (LL3) and Soko Banja (LL4), density separates and chondrules from Guidder (LL5) and density separates from Jelica (LL6) and Ensisheim (LL6). Whole rocks define an isochron of age 4.486±0.020 Ga (λ87Rb=1.42×10?11a?1) and initial ratio (87Sr/86Sr)I=0.69887±0.00012. This is in agreement with the results for H- and E-type chondrites. Analyses for chondrules from Soko Banja yield a very good isochron of age 4.452±0.020 Ga and strontium initial ratio 0.69954±0.00024, and give an interval for metamorphism of (37±10)×106 a. A more poorly defined isochron is obtained for Jelica; the age is 4.423±0.041 Ga and the strontium initial ratio 0.69959±0.00029, indicating an interval for metamorphism of (70±60)×106 a. No isochron could be obtained for Chainpur. This could be due to terrestrial alteration or to a late isotopic disturbance of the meteorite. The87Rb-87Sr system is also disturbed in Guidder and Ensisheim, probably as a consequence of shock. These results are discussed in comparison with our former studies, and in relation with thermal metamorphism in the LL chondrite parent body(ies).  相似文献   

3.
14C has been measured in three North American and seven Antarctic meteorites with the Chalk River MP tandem accelerator. In most cases cosmogenic14C, which is tightly bound, was separated from absorbed atmospheric radiocarbon by stepwise heating extractions. Terrestrial ages obtained by comparing cosmogenic14C in the meteorite to that in Bruderheim are (7.2 ± 0.6) × 103 years for Yamato 7304, (11.6 ± 0.4) × 103 years for Estacado, and range from (32.7 ± 0.5) × 103 to (41.0 ± 0.8) × 103 years for six meteorites recovered at Allan Hills and its vicinity. The present upper limit to age determination by the accelerator method varies from 50 × 103 to 70 × 103 years depending upon mass and carbon content of the sample. The natural limit caused by cosmic ray production of14C in silicate rocks at 2000 m elevation is estimated to be (55 ± 5) × 103 years. “Weathering ages” were estimated for the Antarctic meteorites from the specific activity of loosely-bound CO2 considered to be absorbed from the terrestrial atmosphere on weathering. The accelerator measurements are in accordance with previous low-level counting measurements but have higher precision and sensitivity.  相似文献   

4.
The amount of trapped inert gases present in rock 66095, as well as the elemental and isotopic composition of these gases can be explained by “contamination” of this rock - on the lunar surface - with as little as 0.2% of fines There is no compelling evidence that these gases come from the impact of a comet or a carbonaceous meteorite on the Moon, or that they represent genuine primordial lunar gas.The21Ne radiation age of 66095 is (1.1 ± 0.5) × 106yr, which strongly suggests that this rock was excavated by the South Ray Crater event.  相似文献   

5.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of meteorite impacts on magnetic properties including magnetic susceptibility and the Verwey transition of Ti-poor titanomagnetite of volcanic rocks from the 3.6 Ma old El’gygytgyn impact structure located in the Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic belt in north-eastern Russia. The target rocks consist mainly of rhyolite with some andesites, and is a rare example of impact structures within volcanic target rocks on Earth. 27 samples from outside the crater, the crater rim and from the depth interval 316 to 517 m below lake bottom (mblb) of the El’gygytgyn ICDP drilling were studied. A significant decrease of the average specific magnetic susceptibility by around 90% was observed between felsic volcanic rocks from the surface (18.1 × 10-6 m3/kg) and the drill cores from near the crater central uplift (1.9 × 10-6 m3/kg). Ferrimagnetic Fe-Ti oxide assemblages (Verwey transition temperature, TV: -161 to -150°C, Curie temperature, TC: 451 to 581°C), occurring in all studied samples, differ significantly. At the surface titanomaghemite is ubiquitously associated with titanomagnetite. The drill cores lack titanomaghemite, but either show a transformation into titanomagnetite and ilmenite or a strong fragmentation associated with a second TV between -172 and -188°C. Reversible curves of temperature dependence of magnetic susceptibility in the suevite indicate high depositional temperatures of at least 500°C. In the polymict and monomict impact breccia mechanical deformation of titanomagnetite and temperatures of at least 200-350°C related to the shock are suggested from temperature dependent magnetic susceptibility cycling. Lowtemperature oxidation along strongly brecciated grain surfaces in titanomagnetite is suggested to cause the lower TV and we suggest that this phenomenon is related to postimpact hydrothermal activity. The strong magnetic susceptibility decrease at El’gygytgyn is mainly influenced by shock, and post-impact hydrothermalism causes a significant additional depletion. These observations explain why magnetic lows are a ubiquitous phenomenon over impact structures.  相似文献   

6.
位于美国弗吉尼亚东海岸直径85 km的Chesapeake湾撞击坑,是十几年前发现的由一颗陨星撞击形成的一个复杂撞击坑. 该坑的研究经历四个阶段：地下水调查、撞击坑的发现、美国多学科多部门的综合研究和即将进行的国际钻探取心项目. 钻井岩心中的角砾成份和微体化石,提示撞击坑的存在,并确定撞击发生在35 Ma前,即始新始晚期. 地震反射剖面资料帮助寻找到撞击坑的具体位置,确定撞击坑的结构和形态特征. Chesapeake湾撞击坑埋藏在新生界沉积层之下,是全球已知最大的、保存最好的撞击坑之一. Chesapeake湾撞击坑主要形态像一顶倒置的宽边大草帽,包括外缘、环状洼地、峰环（内缘）、内盆和中央峰. 撞击坑的形成破坏了原来的含水层,撞击坑当时即被富含咸水的抛射角砾岩和海啸角砾岩充填,再被后来的沉积层覆盖. Chesapeake湾撞击坑导致地面沉降、河流变向、海岸含水层的中断、内陆咸水楔的出现、地震,决定Chesapeake湾本身的位置,至今仍然影响当地居民的生活. 了解Chesapeake湾撞击坑对我国撞击坑研究具有借鉴作用.  相似文献   

7.
Soufrière volcano in St Vincent, West Indies, is one of the most active volcanoes in the Eastern Caribbean with at least six eruptions since 1718 AD, the latest of which occurred in 1979. Prior to the 1979 eruption, the active crater hosted deep-water lakes during periods of repose, which were always replenished within a few years after the eruptions. In 1979, the crater was filled with 108 m3 of fragmental material and, despite constant precipitation, has remained virtually dry ever since, with the exception of a small shallow pond. A resistivity survey was conducted in July 2006 to investigate groundwater occurrence in the crater. Results from the resistivity data inversion on several 2-D profiles show a shallow horizontal conductor across the crater floor, consistent with a water-saturated aquifer. They also show that the post-1979 pond, currently present in the crater lake is in fact an outcropping part of the groundwater water reservoir. The reservoir water table is ∼28 m above the pre-1979 lake level and reflects mass equilibrium in the system where constant seepage underground balances the meteoric recharge. We suggest that the groundwater body extends at depth to the bottom of the pre-1979 crater lake, either due to a significant structural discontinuity or because of a reduction of permeability at depth. The estimated maximum volume of water stored underground is 10–30 × 106 m3 and energy considerations indicate that 2.4–7.3 × 1010 kg of magma would potentially be sufficient to vaporise the whole groundwater body. This amount of magma represents only 13–41% of the mass erupted during the last eruption in 1979 which was the smallest of the past 3 eruptions (1902, 1971–72, 1979). Since explosive phreatic or phreatomagmatic eruptions at Soufrière seem to be linked to magma-water interaction within confined space, the results from this survey suggests that phreatic or phreatomagmatic activity is a distinct possibility during future magma intrusion in the summit area, despite the apparent disappearance of water in the summit crater.  相似文献   

8.
The crater of Mount St Helens shows one of the world's highest known rates of mass wasting. On many summer days, rockfall is almost continuous, and many large rock and dirty-snow avalanches have travelled several kilometres from their sources on the crater walls. Since formation of the crater on 18 May 1980, talus cones exceeding 100 m in thickness have formed at the base of the unstable 600 m high crater walls. To estimate rates of erosion and deposition, a series of digitized topographic maps made from aerial photographs taken of the crater in 1980, 1981, 1983, 1986 and 1988 were analysed using a geographic information system. Between 1980 and 1988, 30 × 106 m3 of rock were eroded from the crater wall, representing a mean retreat rate of 2.1 m yr?1. To account for the volume increase that occurs when bedrock is transformed into scree, this volume is multiplied by 4/3; this provides an estimate of the rock-debris volume supplied to the crater floor of 40 × 106 m3. The actual volume of deposits that accumulated during this 8 year period, however, is 68 × 106 m3. The difference of 28 × 106 m3 is presumably the volume of snow intercalated between insulating layers of rock debris. Similar calculations for each of four time intervals between 1980 and 1988 suggest that wall erosion and thus talus accumulation rates are declining, but that rates will probably remain high for decades to come.  相似文献   

9.
Residual meteoritic material has been detected on the surface of crater interiors on lunar samples 60315,29 and 65315,68. Iron-nickel micrometeoroid residues are present in the form of mettallic spherules embedded in or attached to the crater glass-linings; stony-iron meteorite residual material is homogeneously mixed with the glass-linings.Crater simulation experiments show the dependence of crater diameter to depth ratio on projectile density. On the other hand, the projectile velocities exceeding 4 km/s have no measurable influence on the D/T ratios of microcraters. As a result, diameter-to-depth measurements on lunar microcraters yield three groups of micrometeorites in the size range between 1 μm and 1 mm: iron-nickel, stony-iron and low-density particles. The measured D/T values correspond directly to the kind of determined projectile residues: craters showing residues of iron-nickel meteorites have ratios of D/T = 1.3–1.4 and craters with stony-iron residues have ratios ofD/T = 1.9–2.1.Craters with diameters ?30 μm seem to have been formed predominantly by iron-nickel micrometeorites, whereas craters with diameters ?80 μm predominantly by stony meteorites.  相似文献   

10.
Apollo 15 and 16 subsatellite measurements of lunar surface magnetic fields by the electron reflection method are summarized. Patches of strong surface fields ranging from less than 14° to tens of degrees in size are found distributed over the lunar surface, but in general no obvious correlation is observed between field anomalies and surface geology. In lunar mare regions a positive statistical correlation is found between the surface field strength and the geologic age of the surface as determined from crater erosion studies. However, there is a lack of correlation of surface field with impact craters in the mare, implying that mare do not have a strong large-scale uniform magnetization as might be expected from an ancient lunar dynamo. This lack of correlation also indicates that mare impact processes do not generate strong magnetization coherent over ～ 10 km scale size. In the lunar highlands fields of >100 nT are found in a region of order 10 km wide and >300 km long centered on and paralleling the long linear rille, Rima Sirsalis. These fields imply that the rille has a strong magnetization (>5 × 10?6 gauss cm3 gm?1 associated with it, either in the form of intrusive, magnetized rock or as a gap in a uniformly magnetic layer of rock. However, a survey of seven lunar farside magnetic anomalies observed by the Apollo 16 subsatellite suggests a correlation with inner ejecta material from large impact basins. The implications of these results for the origin of lunar magnetism are discussed.  相似文献   

11.
The10Be method of dating of marine sediment cores is applied to five North Pacific cores. Assuming a constant10Be precipitation rate and varying sedimentation rates with time during the past 2.5 m.y. dating confirms to that obtained from paleomagnetic stratigraphy. The10Be concentration variations with depth in the cores are primarily due to changes in sediment dilution and do not reflect cosmic ray intensity or global climate variations. The limits of10Be deposition rate variation in the investigated cores are less than ± 10% for periods of (2–7) × 105 years and less than ±30% for periods of 1 × 105 years. The data set gives a half-life of10Be is 1.50 × 106 years. The latitudinal effect of10Be concentrations and10Be/9Be ratios relates to a frequency of particulate matter occurrence (detrital and biological particles) in the oceans and to oceanic circulation.  相似文献   

12.
We report an imaging method of zircon U-Pb dating with NanoSIMS 50 L, which overcomes the significant U-Pb fractionation as the pit was sputtered deeper during conventional spot mode analysis and can be applied to irregular small grains or heterogeneous areas of zircon. The U-Pb and Pb-Pb ages can be acquired simultaneously for 2 μm×2 μm(for small grains) or 1 μm×9 μm(for zoned grains), together with Zr, Y and other trace elements distributions. Using zircon M257 as standard, the U-Pb ages of other zircon standards, including Qinghu, Plesovice, Temora and 91500, were measured to(2σ) as158.8±0.8, 335.9±3.4, 412.0±12 and 1067±12 Ma, respectively, consistent with the recommended values within the analytical uncertainties. Tiny zircon grains in the impact melt breccia of the lunar meteorite SaU 169 were also measured in this study,with a Pb-Pb age of 3912±14 Ma and a U-Pb age of 3917±17 Ma, similar to previous results reported for the same meteorite.The imaging method was also applied to determine U-Pb age of the thin overgrowth rims of Longtan metamorphic zircon, with a Pb-Pb age of 1933±27 Ma and a U-Pb age of 1935±25 Ma, clearly distinct from the Pb-Pb age of 2098±61 Ma and the U-Pb age of 2054±40 Ma for detrital cores.  相似文献   

13.
The reasons why53Mn (a cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 3.7 × 106 y) appears as one of the best indicators of the presence of interplanetary dust are summarized. This paper reports the detection of53Mn in pre-1952 snow samples collected on the Eastern Antarctic Plateau in the vicinity of Plateau Station. The measurements were carried out by neutron activation and X-ray spectrometry on three samples weighing a few hundred kg and covering each the time interval 1935–1950. The specific activity of53Mn was found to be (0.82 ± 0.17) disint.min?1/103 tons of snow, corresponding to a deposition rate at Plateau Station of (2.2 ± 0.5) × 10?5 disint. min?1 m?2 y?1. The mean global deposition rate would be three times higher if53Mn were assumed to behave in the same way as stratospheric90Sr. By comparing this figure with existing data on the meteorite flux reaching the earth and with the galactic and solar production rates of53Mn, it is concluded that the bulk of the53Mn found at Plateau Station is associated with interplanetary dust in which it had been produced by the action of solar protons on iron. The deposition rate of extra-terrestrial dust-borne iron must be between 1.3 × 10?5 and 1.3 × 10?4 g m?2 y?1 at Plateau Station. These results support jointly with other studies the concept of an interplanetary zodiacal cloud of dust with a chemical composition and density not essentially different from chondritic meteorites, with a relatively ‘flat’ grain size distribution and a mass influx to the earth of the order of 105 tons/y.  相似文献   

14.
The largest natrocarbonatite lava flow eruption ever documented at Oldoinyo Lengai, NW Tanzania, occurred from March 25 to April 5, 2006, in two main phases. It was associated with hornito collapse, rapid extrusion of lava covering a third of the crater and emplacement of a 3-km long compound rubbly pahoehoe to blocky aa-like flow on the W flank. The eruption was followed by rapid enlargement of a pit crater. The erupted natrocarbonatite lava has high silica content (3% SiO2). The eruption chronology is reconstructed from eyewitness and news media reports and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data, which provide the most reliable evidence to constrain the eruption’s onset and variations in activity. The eruption products were mapped in the field and the total erupted lava volume estimated at 9.2 ± 3.0 × 105 m3. The event chronology and field evidence are consistent with vent construct instability causing magma mixing and rapid extrusion from shallow reservoirs. It provides new insights into and highlights the evolution of the shallow magmatic system at this unique natrocarbonatite volcano.  相似文献   

15.
By using crater impact morphological theory and mathematics modeling,the paper studies the cratering process and morphological features of the Xiuyan Crater in Northeast China based on remote sensing imagery,digital elevation model(DEM)and drilling and measuring data.The results show that:1)Simulated calculation indicates the diameter of the transient crater was1406±12 m and the depth was 497±4 m.The diameter of the final crater was 1758±15 m and the depth was 374.5±3.5 m;the thickness of the breccia lens was 188.5±0.5 m.The data is basically the same as previous drilling data.2)Preliminary determination of the size of Xiuyan impactor:The diameter at about 55 m for an iron meteorite,and about 115 m for a stony meteorite.3)The depth-to-diameter ratio is 0.143,similar to the typical simple crater.The circularity index of the Xiuyan Crater is0.884,indicating erosion and degradation.4)The distribution pattern of radial fractures has priority in NW-SE and WNW-ESE and these fractures control the development and evolution of drainage inside the crater.  相似文献   

16.
Recent investigations indicate the importance of meteorite impact as a process which has operated throughout geologic time to produce numerous originally circular structures as much as 50 km in diameter. One such structure, at Sudbury, Ontario, is associated with large volumes of internally derived igneous rock. Geological and experimental studies have demonstrated that rocks subjected to intense shock waves produced by hypervelocity meteorite impacts and by nuclear or chemical explosions develop distinctive and uniqueshock-metamorphic features, including: (1) high-pressure minerals such as coesite and stishovite; (2) crystal lattice deformation features such as isotropic feldspar (maskelynite) and « planar features » (shock lamellae) in quartz; (3) ultra-high-temperature reactions not produced by normal geological processes, such as decomposition of zircon to baddeleyite and melting of quartz to lechatelierite. These petrographic features, currently regarded as unequivocal evidence for meteorite impact, can be preserved and recognized even in very old and deeply eroded structures. Such features have now been observed in more than 50 « crypto-explosion » structures ranging in size from 2 km to more than 60 km in diameter. The recent discovery of shock-metamorphic features in rocks of the Sudbury structure, Ontario, indicates that this old and complex structure was also produced by a large meteorite impact. Petrographic shock effects are widespread in inclusions of « basement » rock in the Onaping « tuff », a unit now regarded as afallback breccia deposited in the original crater immediately after impact. Similar shock effects also occur in the footwall rocks around the basin, associated with shatter cones and unusual Sudbury-type breccias. Study of Sudbury specimens has establishedgrades of progressive shock metamorphism comparable to those recognized at younger impact structures (Brent, Ontario; Ries basin, Germany). Igneous activity associated with known meteorite impact structures takes two forms:
  1. direct production of impact melt. At many structures (e.g., Brent, Ontario; Lake Mien, Sweden; Clearwater Lakes and Manicouagan, Quebec), breccias containing shock-metamorphic features occur with «sills» and «dikes» of fine- to medium- grained crystalline igneous rock. Such units, previously regarded as internal volcanic products, now appear to have been formed by complete fusion, injection, and rapid crystallization of large volumes of target rock during the impact event.
  2. emplacement of internally derived magma. The presence of the clearly internally-derived Nickel Irruptive within the Sudbury basin indicates that large meteorite impacts may also control the emplacement of internally-generated magmas through « unroofing » or by the production of deeply-extending zones of weakness below the crater.
The inferred development of the Sudbury structure was a complex process involving: (1) impact of an asteroidal body, forming a large (100-km) diameter crater with a central uplift; (2) subsidence of the central uplift and simultaneous emplacement of the Nickel Irruptive; (3) metamorphism, deformation, and erosion to its present appearance. The post-impact history of the Sudbury structure thus corresponds closely to that established for many ring-dike complexes and caldera subsidences. Similar compound impact-igneous structures, in which internal igneous activity is superimposed on a large impact crater, probably exist on both the earth and the moon. Future examination of « roofed lopoliths » and « ring-dike structures » for shock-metamorphic effects, combined with serious consideration of the geophysical effects produced by large-energy meteorite impacts, will be a productive field for cooperative studies by astrogeologists and igneous petrologists.  相似文献   

17.
On November 12, 1964, after a long swarm of preliminary earthquakes a gigantic directed blast took place at Shiveluch Volcano. The Crater top of the volcano with five large domes was completely destroyed. The deposits of the directed blast fell on an area of 98 sq. km, at a distance up to 10 km from the crater. The volume of the deposits is 1.5 km3 at least. A new crater was formed, its size is 1.5 × 3 km. Numerous pyroclastic flows were poured out the new crater. The eruption lasted only one hour, its thermal energy is 1,3 × 1025 ergs, kinetic energy of the blast ? 1 × 1024 ergs, air wave energy ? 1,8 × 1021 ergs. Initial velocity of the explosion: 280–310m/sec, pressure: 800–1000atm. The eruption of Shiveluch volcano belongs to the « Bezymianny type » eruption.  相似文献   

18.
Internal isochrons for two Apollo 15 rocks give an age of(3.34 ± 0.09)and(3.46 ± 0.04) × 109 years with an identical87Sr/86Sr initial ratio of 0.69928. Considering the possibility for the line obtained in a87Sr/86Sr,87Rb/86Sr diagram to be a mixing line, the significance of these results are discussed.  相似文献   

19.
The 1968–73 (and continuing) eruption of Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica, a small 1633 m strato-volcano with long periods of repose, defines an eruptive cycle which is typical of Arenal’s pre-historic eruptions. An intense, short explosive phase (July 29–31, 1968) grades into an effusive phase, and is followed by a block lava flow. The eruptive rocks become increasingly less differentiated with time in a given cycle, ranging from andesite to basaltic andesite. Nuées ardentes are a characteristic of the initial explosions, and are caused by fall-back ejecta on slopes around the main crater — an explosion crater in the 1968 eruption — which coalesce into hot avalanches and descend major drainage channels. Total volume of pyroclastic flows was small, about 1.8 ± 0.5 × 10n m3, in the July 29–31 explosions, and are block and ash flows, with much accidental material. Overpressures, ranging up to perhaps 5 kilobars just prior to major explosions, were estimated from velocities of large ejected blocks, which had velocities of up to 600 m/sec. Total kinetic energy and volume of ejecta of all explosions are an estimated 3 × 1022 ergs and 0.03 km3, respectively. The block lava flow, emitted from Sept., 1968 to 1973 (and continuing) has a volume greater than 0.06 km3, and covers 2.7 km2 at thicknesses ranging from 15 to over 100 m. The total volumes of the explosive and effusive phases for the 1968–73 eruption are about 0.05 km3 and 0.06 km3, respectively. The last eruption of Arenal occurred about 1500 AD. based on radiocarbon dating and archaeological means, and was about twice as voluminous as the current one (0.17 km3 versus 0.09 km3). The total thermal energies for this pre-historic eruption and the current one are 8 × 1023 and 18 × 1023, respectively. The total volume of Arenal’s cone is about 6 km3 from 1633 m (summit) to 500 m, and, estimates of age based on the average rate of cone growth from these two eruptions, suggest an age between 20,000 to 200,000 years.  相似文献   

20.
Cosmic-ray-produced53Mn (t½ = 3.7 × 106years) has been determined by neutron activation analysis in twenty-two chondrites including three Antarctic meteorites: Yamato-7301 (j), -7305 (k) and -7304 (m).53Mn was also measured in four mesosiderites, three iron meteorites, Bencubbin (unique) and Udei Station (iron with silicate inclusions). In addition, preliminary results for10Be (1.6 × 106 years) were obtained in the Yamato meteorites using a low-background needle GM counter. Based on published values of rare gas ages, corrections were made for undersaturation; the average specific saturation activities of53Mn were found in the range 450 ± 90dpm53Mn/kg Fe in most of the chondrites and 490 ± 75dpm53Mn/kg Fe in the mesosiderites. Two meteorites had extremely low contents of53Mn: 102 ± 6 in Yamato-7301 and 48 ± 3dpm53Mn/kg Fe in Bondoc. The Bondoc mesosiderite was already known to have a low concentration of cosmogenic radionuclides due to its large pre-atmospheric size. Several possible mechanisms are discussed to explain the low53Mn activity in Yamato-7301: (1) long terrestrial age of about 7 m.y.; (2) low production rate of53Mn due to heavy pre-atmospheric shielding (>70cm); (3) multi-stage irradiation history resulting in an undersaturation of53Mn; and (4) a mechanism in which two or three of the above factors are combined. The ratio of53Mn production rate in Ni to that in Fe has been estimated to be 1/3, based on the measurements of53Mn in the metallic and silicate phases of St. Séverin meteorite, as well as on published results of some high-energy bombardment experiments.  相似文献   

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