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1.
In this article, we discuss four fundamental scientific problems of lunar research: (1) lunar chronology, (2) the internal structure of the Moon, (3) the lunar polar regions, and (4) lunar volcanism. After formulating the scientific problems and their components, we proceed to outlining a list of technical solutions and priority lunar regions for research. Solving the listed problems requires investigations on the lunar surface using lunar rovers, which can deliver a set of analytical equipment to places where geological conditions are known from a detailed analysis of orbital information. The most critical research methods, which can answer some of the key questions, are analysis of local geological conditions from panoramic photographs, determination of the chemical, isotopic, and mineral composition of the soil, and deep seismic sounding. A preliminary list is given of lunar regions with high scientific priority.  相似文献   

2.
The article gives a brief review of the scientific program of the unmanned studies of the Moon performed in the USSR in 1960s–1970s, most notably by the “Luna” Spacecraft. The main results obtained during this period are considered, in particular photographing of the far side of the Moon, mapping of the far side of the Moon, soft landing, remote (from the orbit of an artificial lunar satellite) and in situ (on the surface) studies of the lunar surface composition and circumlunar space, automated soil sampling, and delivery of surface samples to the Earth. Various institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences played important role in the studies, including the Vernadskii Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry and the Space Research Institute, established in 1965, where the Moon and Planets Department was established under the leadership of K.P. Florenskii. In the conclusion, the article considers some further issues of lunar studies and possibilities for lunar exploration. The challenging Moon exploration mission “Luna-Glob”, currently under development in Russia, is a potentially important step in the beginning of the process.  相似文献   

3.
The new US Vision for Space Exploration is briefly described, with particular emphasis on the place of lunar exploration. The value of humans in the exploration of the Moon is discussed, and it is argued that people offer significant advantages over robots for the purposes of scientific exploration. The Vision provides a new rationale for space activities, one aimed at both broadening our knowledge base and, in the longer term, of increasing prosperity by providing access to the material and energy resources of the Solar System.  相似文献   

4.
Chang'e-3 was China's first soft-landing lunar probe that achieved a successful roving exploration on the Moon. A topography camera functioning as the lander's "eye" was one of the main scientific payloads installed on the lander. It was composed of a camera probe, an electronic component that performed image compression, and a cable assembly. Its exploration mission was to obtain optical images of the lunar topography in the landing zone for investigation and research. It also observed rover movement on the lunar surface and finished taking pictures of the lander and rover. After starting up successfully, the topography camera obtained static images and video of rover movement from different directions, 360?panoramic pictures of the lunar surface around the lander from multiple angles, and numerous pictures of the Earth. All images of the rover, lunar surface, and the Earth were clear, and those of the Chinese national flag were recorded in true color. This paper describes the exploration mission, system design, working principle, quality assessment of image compression, and color correction of the topography camera. Finally, test results from the lunar surface are provided to serve as a reference for scientific data processing and application.  相似文献   

5.
The chemical reactivity of lunar dust is an important topic of inquiry, of fundamental scientific value and of practical relevance to human exploration of the Moon. Lunar specimens brought back to Earth by the Apollo astronauts provide a key resource for ground-based studies which help to define the initial avenues of inquiry. Even among the limited samples obtained from equatorial exploration sites, however, chemical reactivity analyses indicates that lunar dust is heterogeneous, a finding that parallels heterogeneity revealed by remote sensing studies. The region-to-region variability of lunar dust argues that a full understanding of its chemical reactivity will require in situ analysis, on a region-to-region basis. The data from such investigations will help to shape our understanding of the potential for lunar dust toxicity, and will provide insight into the types of reactions that may occur with when lunar dust interacts with organic molecules on the surface of the Moon.  相似文献   

6.
NASA and ESA have outlined visions for solar system exploration that will include a series of lunar robotic precursor missions to prepare for, and support a human return to the Moon, and future human exploration of Mars and other destinations, including possibly asteroids. One of the guiding principles for exploration is to pursue compelling scientific questions about the origin and evolution of life. The search for life on objects such as Mars will require careful operations, and that all systems be sufficiently cleaned and sterilized prior to launch to ensure that the scientific integrity of extraterrestrial samples is not jeopardized by terrestrial organic contamination. Under the Committee on Space Research’s (COSPAR’s) current planetary protection policy for the Moon, no sterilization procedures are required for outbound lunar spacecraft, nor is there a different planetary protection category for human missions, although preliminary COSPAR policy guidelines for human missions to Mars have been developed. Future in situ investigations of a variety of locations on the Moon by highly sensitive instruments designed to search for biologically derived organic compounds would help assess the contamination of the Moon by lunar spacecraft. These studies could also provide valuable “ground truth” data for Mars sample return missions and help define planetary protection requirements for future Mars bound spacecraft carrying life detection experiments. In addition, studies of the impact of terrestrial contamination of the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts could provide valuable data to help refine future Mars surface exploration plans for a human mission to Mars.  相似文献   

7.
One of the principal scientific reasons for wanting to resume in situ exploration of the lunar surface is to gain access to the record it contains of early Solar System history. Part of this record will pertain to the galactic environment of the Solar System, including variations in the cosmic ray flux, energetic galactic events (e.g., supernovae and/or gamma-ray bursts), and passages of the Solar System through dense interstellar clouds. Much of this record is of astrobiological interest as these processes may have affected the evolution of life on Earth, and perhaps other Solar System bodies. We argue that this galactic record, as for that of more local Solar System processes also of astrobiological interest, will be best preserved in ancient, buried regolith (‘palaeoregolith’) deposits in the lunar near sub-surface. Locating and sampling such deposits will be an important objective of future lunar exploration activities.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract— NASA plans to resume human exploration of the Moon in the next decade. One of the pressing concerns is the effect that lunar dust (the fraction of the lunar regolith <20 μm in diameter) will have on systems, both human and mechanical, due to the fact that various problems were caused by dust during the Apollo missions. The loss of vacuum integrity in the lunar sample containers during the Apollo era ensured that the present lunar samples are not in the same condition as they were on the Moon; they have been passivated by oxygen and water vapor. To mitigate the harmful effects of lunar dust on humans, methods of “reactivating” the dust must be developed for experimentation, and, ideally, it should be possible to monitor the level of activity to determine methods of deactivating the dust in future lunar habitats. Here we present results demonstrating that simple grinding, as a simple analog to micrometeorite crushing, is apable of substantially activating lunar dust and lunar simulant, and it is possible to determine the level of chemical activity by monitoring the ability of the dust to produce hydroxyl radicals in aqueous solution. Comparisons between ground samples of lunar dust, lunar simulant, and quartz reveal that ground lunar dust is capable of producing over three times the amount of hydroxyl radicals as lunar simulant and an order of magnitude more than ground quartz.  相似文献   

9.
We present the first in situ measurements of the secondary electron emission efficiency of lunar regolith, utilizing Lunar Prospector measurements of secondary electrons emitted from the negatively charged night side and accelerated upward by surface electric fields. By comparing measurements of secondary currents emitted from the surface and incident primary electron currents, we find that the secondary yield of lunar regolith is a factor of ∼3 lower than that measured for samples in the laboratory. This lower yield significantly affects current balance at the lunar surface and the resulting equilibrium surface potentials. This information must be folded into models of the near-surface plasma sheath, in order to predict the effects on dust and other components of the lunar environment, and ultimately determine the importance for surface exploration and scientific investigations on the Moon.  相似文献   

10.
The possibility of communicating with the far side of the Moon is essential for keeping a continuous radio link with lunar orbiting spacecraft, as well as with manned or unmanned surface facilities in locations characterized by poor coverage from Earth. If the exploration and the exploitation of the Moon must be sustainable in the medium/long term, we need to develop the capability to realize and service such facilities at an affordable cost. Minimizing the spacecraft mass and the number of launches is a driving parameter to this end. The aim of this study is to show how Space Manifold Dynamics can be profitably applied in order to launch three small spacecraft onboard the same launch vehicle and send them to different orbits around the Moon with no significant difference in the Delta-V budgets. Internal manifold transfers are considered to minimize also the transfer time. The approach used is the following: we used the linearized solution of the equations of motion in the Circular Restricted Three Body Problem to determine a first–guess state vector associated with the Weak Stability Boundary regions, either around the collinear Lagrangian point L1 or around the Moon. The resulting vector is then used as initial state in a numerical backward-integration sequence that outputs a trajectory on a manifold. The dynamical model used in the numerical integration is four-body and non-circular, i.e. the perturbations of the Sun and the lunar orbital eccentricity are accounted for. The trajectory found in this way is used as the principal segment of the lunar transfer. After separation, with minor maneuvers each satellite is injected into different orbits that lead to ballistic capture around the Moon. Finally, one or more circularization maneuvers are needed in order to achieve the final circular orbits. The whole mission profile, from launch to insertion into the final lunar orbits, is modeled numerically with the commercial software STK.  相似文献   

11.
Robotic platforms are essential for future human planetary and lunar exploration as they can operate in more extreme environments with a greater endurance than human explorers. In this era of space exploration, a terrestrial analog that can be used for development of the coordination between manned and robotic vehicles will optimize the scientific return of future missions while concurrently minimizing the downtime of both human explorers and robotic platforms. This work presents the use of underwater exploratory robots - autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), remotely operated vehicles (ROV), and manned submersibles - as analogues for mixed human-robot exploration of space. Subaqueous settings present diverse challenges for navigation, operation and recovery that require the development of an exploration model of a similar complexity as required for space exploration. To capitalize on the strengths of both robotic and human explorers this work presents lessons learnt with respect to the fields of human-robotic interface (HRI) and operator training. These are then used in the development of mission evaluation tools: (1) a task efficiency index (TEI), (2) performance metrics, and (3) exploration metrics. Although these independent evaluations were useful for specific missions, further refinement will be required to fully evaluate the strengths and capabilities of multiple platforms in a human-robotic exploration campaign in order to take advantage of unforeseen science opportunities in remote settings.  相似文献   

12.
Lunar Penetrating Radar(LPR) onboard the rover that is part of the Chang'e-3(CE-3) mission was firstly utilized to obtain in situ measurements about geological structure on the lunar surface and the thickness of the lunar regolith, which are key elements for studying the evolutional history of lunar crust. Because penetration depth and resolution of LPR are related to the scientific objectives of this mission,a series of ground-based experiments using LPR was carried out, and results of the experimental data were obtained in a glacial area located in the northwest region of China. The results show that the penetration depth of the first channel antenna used for LPR is over 79 m with a resolution of 2.8 m, and that for the second channel antenna is over 50.8 m with a resolution of 17.1 cm.  相似文献   

13.
Based on the ongoing Chinese lunar exploration mission, i.e. the “Chang'e 1” project, precise orbit determination of lunar orbiters is analyzed for the actual geographical distribution and observational accuracy of the Chinese united S-band (USB) observation and control network as well as the very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) tracking network. The observed data are first simulated, then solutions are found after including the effects of various error sources and finally compared. We use the space data analysis software package, GEODYN, developed at Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, USA. The primary error source of the flight orbiting the moon is the lunar gravity field. Therefore, the (formal) error of JGL165P1, i.e. the model of the lunar gravity field with the highest accuracy at present, is first discussed. After simulating the data of ranging and velocity measurement as well as the VLBI data of the time delay and time delay rate, precise orbit determination is carried out when the error of the lunar gravity field is added in. When the orbit is determined, the method of reduced dynamics is adopted with the selection of appropriate empirical acceleration parameters to absorb the effect of errors in the lunar gravity field on the orbit determination. The results show that for lunar missions like the “Chang'e 1” project, that do not take the lunar gravity field as their main scientific objective, the method of reduced dynamics is a simple and effective means of improving the accuracy of the orbit determination of the lunar orbiters.  相似文献   

14.
The satellite “Tance 1” of the “Double-Star Program” is the first truly scientific experimentation satellite of China. Its orbit is the farthest so far launched in China, with a geocentric apogee reaching 78 thousand kilometers. The tracking of “Tance 1” and of more distant space targets, such as the lunar exploration craft, can be realized with the VLBI technique of radio astronomy. In order to test and verify the role which the VLBI technique plays in the lunar exploration program of China, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory organized the only 3 tracking stations in China (located at Shanghai, Urumqi and Kunming), to carry out test tracking of “Tance 1,” and used the time delay data obtained to determine the orbit of “Tance 1” over a two-day period, so providing a preliminary assessment of the possibility of VLBI orbit determination. The fitting error of the orbit so obtained is about 5.5 m in the time delay and about 2 cm/s in the delay rate (this for checking only), much better than is provided by the preliminary orbit (used merely for ensuring tracking) in which the corresponding figures are around 2 km and 15 cm/s. Further, if the orbit is determined by using both the time delay and time delay rate data (with weights according to their internal accuracies), then the residuals are 5.5 m in the time delay and 2 cm/s in the delay rate. For an appreciation of the true accuracy of the VLBI orbit determination, we used simulation data (of the observed two-day VLBI data) and found the results depended greatly on the error in the dynamic model of the satellite which, however, is difficult to assess, while the formal residuals are of the order of 1 kin in the delay and of cm/s in the delay rate. The simulation computation also indicates that a joint determination using both VLBI and USB data will have an improved accuracy.  相似文献   

15.
The mineralogy of a planetary surface is a diagnostic product of its formation and geologic evolution. Global assessment of lunar mineralogy at high spatial resolution has been a long standing goal of lunar exploration. Currently, the only global data available for such study is multispectral imagery from the Clementine mission. We use the detailed compositional, petrographic, and spectroscopic data of lunar soils produced by the Lunar Soil Characterization Consortium to explore the use of multispectral imaging as a diagnostic tool. We compare several statistically optimized formulations of links between spectral and mineral parameters and apply them to Clementine UV-VIS data. The most reliable results are for estimations of pyroxene abundance and maturity parameters (agglutinate abundance, Is/FeO). Estimations of different pyroxene composition (low-Ca versus high-Ca) appear good in a relative sense, but absolute values are limited by residual wavelength dependent Clementine photometric calibrations. Since the signal-to-noise of Clementine multispectral data is good at the 1-km scale, almost any combination of parameters that capture inherent spectral variance can provide spatially coherent maps, although the parameters may not actually be directly related to composition. Clementine estimates are useful for identifying scientific or exploration targets for imaging spectrometer sensors of the next generation that are specifically designed to characterize mineralogy.  相似文献   

16.
The Chang'e-3(CE-3) mission is China's first exploration mission on the surface of the Moon that uses a lander and a rover. Eight instruments that form the scientific payloads have the following objectives:(1) investigate the morphological features and geological structures at the landing site;(2) integrated in-situ analysis of minerals and chemical compositions;(3) integrated exploration of the structure of the lunar interior;(4) exploration of the lunar-terrestrial space environment, lunar surface environment and acquire Moon-based ultraviolet astronomical observations. The Ground Research and Application System(GRAS) is in charge of data acquisition and pre-processing, management of the payload in orbit, and managing the data products and their applications. The Data Pre-processing Subsystem(DPS) is a part of GRAS.The task of DPS is the pre-processing of raw data from the eight instruments that are part of CE-3, including channel processing, unpacking, package sorting, calibration and correction, identification of geographical location, calculation of probe azimuth angle, probe zenith angle, solar azimuth angle, and solar zenith angle and so on, and conducting quality checks. These processes produce Level 0, Level 1 and Level 2data. The computing platform of this subsystem is comprised of a high-performance computing cluster, including a real-time subsystem used for processing Level 0 data and a post-time subsystem for generating Level 1 and Level 2 data. This paper describes the CE-3 data pre-processing method, the data pre-processing subsystem, data classification, data validity and data products that are used for scientific studies.  相似文献   

17.
Preparing for future human exploration of the Moon and beyond is an interdisciplinary exercise, requiring new technologies and the pooling of knowledge and expertise from many scientific areas. The European Space Agency is working to develop a Lunar Lander, as a precursor to future human exploration activities. The mission will demonstrate new technologies and perform important preparatory investigations. In the biological sciences the two major areas requiring investigation in advance of human exploration are radiation and its effects on human physiology and the potential toxicity of lunar dust. This paper summarises the issues associated with these areas and the investigations planned for the Lunar Lander to address them.  相似文献   

18.
Laboratory measurements of seismic wave velocities and electrical properties of Apollo lunar samples and similar material of terrestrial origin are discussed in this paper. Measurements of the electrical properties show that in the frequency range above a few hundred Hz the outer region of the Moon may be considered as a low loss dielectric. This observation supports a longstanding speculation that dry, powdered rocks in which the dielectric loss tangent is frequency-independent over a wide range of frequency are present in the uppermost lunar surface layers. The surface layers of the Moon are likely to have an extremely low electrical conductivity. Thus future electromagnetic probing of the Moon to a few hundred kilometer depth is possible in the few kHz frequency range. Based on ultrasonic experiments with pressure as a variable, we next present the elastic constants and equations of state of lunar materials and characteristic dispersion of seismic wave velocities of the Moon. We find thatP andS wave velocities increase sharply within the first 30 km depth and then level off gradually. Combining this observation with lunar seismic and geophone data, we believe that the first 30 km of the Moon may be interpreted as a scattering region. If H2O exists on the Moon, H2O may occur at some shallow depth beneath the outermost surface layer in solid ice interlocking cracks and pores and mineral grains. The rocks in this permafrost state have relatively low seismic velocity and highQ. If permafrost does exist, we would expect a wide range of electrical conductivity and dielectric constant. Future electromagnetic probing of the Moon should yield very usefull information on the physical state of the lunar interior; when this electrical information is combined with the seismic information, we should learn much more about the internal constitution and the state of the Moon than is known today.  相似文献   

19.
Making use of Orbiter and Apollo photographs, frequency counts of craters down to 2 km diam as indicators of the relative ages of lunar features, have been made on 264 areas, including 15 terrae, 27 recognized maria, 174 flat-floored craters and 48 lava-covered areas with indefinite boundaries designated as ‘marets’. Analysis of frequency counts on flat-floored craters on the basis of this data and re-assessment of former results, combined with the relatively restricted age range of lunar samples, make it unlikely that the present observations are able to reach back in time to impacts on an assumed primordial floating crust. The range of crater frequencies on the marets, together with their wide distribution over the lunar surface, suggest lava migrations to the surface within autonomous domains each with its own chronology, covering an extensive period of lunar history. The close association of marets with flat-floored craters provides a reasonable origin for the floor material of these latter objects. The lava migrations associated with the marets suggest that internal heating may be a more important factor in the origin of lunar surface features than had formerly been supposed. Kopal's views on the origin of the moon's multiple moments of intertia (1972) are considered to support the concept of autonomous domains. It is considered that the time sequence of separate lava flows represented by the marets may be a reflection of physical processes within the moon responsible for the successive lava flows associated with the larger maria.  相似文献   

20.
Through the example of comparison of the natural features of two regions in the northern part of Mare Imbrium, that were directly investigated in detail with remotely controlled rovers on the lunar surface, the capabilities of combining orbital remote measurements of the physical and mechanical properties and the chemical composition of the lunar soil with their direct measurements have been shown. From the remotely determined spectropolarimetric and gamma-spectrometric characteristics of the regolith surface layer, the exposure age (the maturity), the mean effective size of particles of the fine fraction, the absolute age of the formations, and the iron content in the soil were estimated. To compare the characteristics of the considered regions, the results of the investigations carried out directly on the lunar surface by the Lunokhod-1 rover and the analogous vehicle Yutu were used.  相似文献   

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