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1.
We present the first 3-dimensional self-consistent calculations of the response of Saturn's global thermosphere to different sources of external heating, giving local time and latitudinal changes of temperatures, winds and composition at equinox and solstice. Our calculations confirm the well-known finding that solar EUV heating alone is insufficient to produce Saturn's observed low latitude thermospheric temperatures of 420 K. We therefore carry out a sensitivity study to investigate the thermosphere's response to two additional external sources of energy, (1) auroral Joule heating and (2) empirical wave heating in the lower thermosphere. Solar EUV heating alone produces horizontal temperature variations of below 20 K, which drive horizontal winds of less than 20 m/s and negligible horizontal changes in composition. In contrast, Joule heating produces a strong dynamical response with westward winds comparable to the sound speed on Saturn. Joule heating alone, at a total rate of 9.8 TW, raises polar temperatures to around 1200 K, but values equatorward of 30° latitude, where observations were made, remain below 200 K due to inefficient meridional energy transport in a fast rotating atmosphere. The primarily zonal wind flow driven by strong Coriolis forces implies that energy from high latitudes is transported equatorward mainly by vertical winds through adiabatic processes, and an additional 0.29-0.44 mW/m2 thermal energy are needed at low latitudes to obtain the observed temperature values. Strong upwelling increases the H2 abundances at high latitudes, which in turn affects the H+3 densities. Downwelling at low latitudes helps increase atomic hydrogen abundances there. 相似文献
2.
Nonthermal escape processes responsible for the escape of hydrogen and deuterium from Venus are examined for present and past atmospheres. Three mechanisms are important for the escape of hydrogen from the present atmosphere: (a) charge exchange of plasmaspheric H+ with exospheric H, (b) impact of exospheric hot O atoms on H, and (c) ion molecule reactions involving O+ and H2. However, in the past when the H abundance was higher, the charge-exchange mechanism would be the strongest. The H escape flux increases rapidly with increasing hydrogen abundance in the upper atmosphere and saturates at a value of 1 × 1010 cm?2 sec?1 emerging primarily from the day side when the H mixing ratio at the homopause is 2 × 10?3. This corresponds to an H2O mixing ratio of 1 × 10?3 at the cold trap and ～15% at the surface. Deuterium would also escape by the charge-exchange mechanism and a D/H enrichment by a factor of ～1000 over the nonthermal escape regime is expected, which could have lasted over the last 3 billion years. Coincidentally, the onset of hydrodynamic flow leading to efficient H escape occurs just at the H2O mixing ratio at which the charge-exchange escape flux saturates. Thus it is possible that Venus has lost an Earth-equivalent ocean of water over geologic time. If so, either the D/H enrichment has been kept low by modest outgassing of juvenile water or Venus started out with a D/H ratio of ～4.0 × 10?6. 相似文献
3.
Data acquired by the Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) on the Cassini spacecraft during its close encounter with Titan on 26 October 2004 reveal the structure of its upper atmosphere. Altitude profiles of N2, CH4, and H2, inferred from INMS measurements, determine the temperature, vertical mixing rate, and escape flux from the upper atmosphere. The mean atmospheric temperature in the region sampled by the INMS is 149±3 K, where the variance is a consequence of local time variations in temperature. The CH4 mole fraction at 1174 km is 2.71±0.1%. The effects of diffusive separation are clearly seen in the data that we interpret as an eddy diffusion coefficient of , that, along with the measured CH4 mole fraction, implies a mole fraction in the stratosphere of 2.2±0.2%. The H2 distribution is affected primarily by upward flow and atmospheric escape. The H2 mole fraction at 1200 km is 4±1×10−3 and analysis of the altitude profile indicates an upward flux of , referred to the surface. If horizontal variations in temperature and H2 density are small, this upward flux also represents the escape flux from the atmosphere. The CH4 density exhibits significant horizontal variations that are likely an indication of dynamical processes in the upper atmosphere. 相似文献
4.
According to recent simulations of the Earth’s thermosphere, the exospheric temperature is not expected to rise above 7000-8000 K even under extreme solar EUV conditions anticipated for the early Earth. Rather, when the solar EUV flux exceeds some critical value, the escaping flow of the bulk upper thermosphere starts cooling it due to adiabatic expansion, which results in a decrease of the exobase temperature. Under these extreme conditions, the exobase might have expanded above the magnetopause and the magnetosphere had not been able to protect the upper atmosphere against strong non-thermal erosion by the solar wind.This study shows that a nitrogen-rich terrestrial atmosphere with a present-day composition would have been removed within a few million years during the extreme EUV and solar wind conditions that are expected to have prevailed before the late heavy bombardment period ∼3.8 Ga ago. Our results suggest that a CO2 amount in the early nitrogen-rich terrestrial atmosphere of at least two orders of magnitude higher than the present-time level was needed to confine the upper atmosphere after the onset of the geodynamo within the shielding magnetosphere and thus might have protected it from complete destruction. 相似文献
5.
Extensive calculations have been made of the behaviour of He+ for situations where ion outflow occurs from the topside ionosphere. For these circumstances, steady state solutions for the He+ continuity, momentum and energy equations have been obtained self-consistently, yielding density, velocity and temperature profiles of He+ from 200 to 2000 km altitude. To model the high latitude topside ionosphere, a range of background H+O+ ionospheres was considered with variations in the H+ outflow velocity, the presence of a perpendicular electric field and different peak O+ densities. In addition, the atmospheric density of neutral helium was chosen to model typical observed winter and summer densities. From our studies we have found that: (a) The outflowing He+ has density profiles of similar shape to those of H+, for basically different reasons; (b) The effect of the perpendicular electric field differs considerably for H+ and He+. This difference stems from the fact that an electric field acts to alter significantly the O+ density at high altitudes and this, in turn, changes the H+ escape flux through the O++H charge exchange reaction. A similar situation does not occur for He+ and therefore the He+ escape flux exhibits a negligibly small change with electric field; (c) The fractional heating of He+ due to the He+O+ relative flow is not as effective in heating He+ as the H+O+ relative flow is in heating H+; (d) During magnetospheric disturbances when the N2 density at the altitude of the He+ peak (600 km) can increase by a factor as large as 50, the He+ peak density decreases only by approximately a factor of 2; and (e) The He+ escape flux over the winter pole is approximately a factor of 20 greater than the He+ escape flux over the summer pole. Consequently, on high latitude closed field lines there could be an interhemispheric He+ flux from winter to summer. 相似文献
6.
V. I. Shematovich 《Solar System Research》2013,47(6):437-445
The processes of kinetics and transport of hot oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the transition (from the thermosphere to the exosphere) region of the upper Martian atmosphere are studied. The reaction of dissociative recombination of the principal ionospheric ion O 2 + with thermal electrons in the ionosphere of Mars served as the source of hot oxygen atoms. The process of momentum and energy transfer in elastic collisions between hot oxygen atoms and atmospheric hydrogen atoms with thermal energies was regarded as the source of hot hydrogen atoms. The kinetic energy distribution functions are determined for suprathermal oxygen and hydrogen atoms. It is shown that the exosphere is populated with a significant number of suprathermal oxygen atoms with kinetic energies ranging up to the escape energy of 2 eV (i.e., the hot oxygen Martian corona is formed). The transfer of energy from hot oxygen atoms to thermal hydrogen atoms creates an additional nonthermal flux of atomic hydrogen escaping from the Martian atmosphere. 相似文献
7.
In recent articles published in Icarus, Bakalian [2006. Icarus 183, 69-78] discusses and computes the production rates of hot nitrogen atoms in the martian thermosphere due to N2 photodissociation and N+2 dissociative recombination, and Bakalian and Hartle [2006. Icarus 183, 55-68] use a Monte Carlo code to compute the escape rates of nitrogen atoms from Mars due to photodissociation of N2, dissociative recombination of N+2, and pickup ion escape due to photoionization of N atoms above the ionopause. Bakalian concludes that “photodissociation of N2 is the dominant escape mechanism in the martian atmosphere.” We will show that this conclusion is not supportable. In addition, both papers contain scientific errors, misrepresentations, inaccurate referencing, lack of proper attribution, and they fail to place these investigations into the existing extensive body of work on this subject. 相似文献
8.
A comparison of ion and neutral composition measurements at Venus for periods of greatly different solar activity provides qualitative evidence of solar control of the day-to-night transport of light ion and neutral species. Concentrations of H+ and He in the predawn bulge near solar maximum in November, 1979, exhibit a depletion signature correlated with a pronounced modulation in the solar F10.7 and EUV fluxes. This perturbation, not observed in the predawn region during an earlier period of relative quiet solar conditions, is interpreted as resulting from pronounced changes in solar heating and photoionization on the dayside, which in turn modulate the transport of ions and neutrals into the bulge region. 相似文献
9.
R.G. Roble 《Planetary and Space Science》1975,23(7):1017-1033
A numerical model of current F-region theory is use to calculate the diurnal variation of the mid-latitude ionospheric F-region over Millstone Hill on 23–24 March 1970, during quiet geomagnetic conditions. From the solar EUV flux, the model calculates at each altitude and time step primary photoelectron spectra and ionization rates of various ion species. The photoelectron transport equation is solved for the secondary ionization rates, photoelectron spectra, and various airglow excitation rates. Five ion continuity equations that include the effects of transport by diffusion, magnetospheric-ionospheric plasma transport, electric fields, and neutral winds are solved for the ion composition and electron density. The electron and ion temperatures are also calculated using the heating rates determined from chemical reactions, photoelectron collisions, and magnetospheric-ionospheric energy transport. The calculations are performed for a diurnal cycle considering a stationary field tube co-rotating with the Earth; only the vertical plasma drift caused by electric fields perpendicular to the geomagnetic field line is allowed but not the horizontal drift. The boundary conditions used in the model are determined from the incoherent scatter radar measurements of Te, Ti and O+ flux at 800km over Millstone Hill (Evans, 1971a). The component of the neutral thermospheric winds along the geomagnetic field has an important influence on the overall ionospheric structure. It is determined from a separate dynamic model of the neutral thermosphere, using incoherent scatter radar measurements.The calculated diurnal variation of the ionospheric structure agrees well with the values measured by the incoherent scatter radar when certain restrictions are placed on the solar EUV flux and model neutral atmospheric compositions. Namely, the solar EUV fluxes of Hinteregger (1970) are doubled and an atomic oxygen concentration of at least at 120 km is required for the neutral model atmosphere. Calculations also show that the topside thermal structure of the ionosphere is primarily maintained by a flow of heat from the magnetosphere and the night-time F2-region is maintained in part by neutral winds, diffusion, electric fields, and plasma flow from the magnetosphere. The problem of maintaining the calculated night-time ionosphere at the observed values is also discussed. 相似文献
10.
A. Boesswetter H. Lammer Y. Kulikov U. Motschmann S. Simon 《Planetary and Space Science》2010,58(14-15):2031-2043
In this study we analyze the non-thermal loss rates of O+, O2+ and CO2+ ions over the last 4.5 billion years (Gyr) in the Martian history by using a 3D hybrid model. For this reason we derived the past solar wind conditions in detail. We take into account the intensified particle flux of the early Sun as well as an Martian atmosphere, which was exposed to a sun's extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation flux 4.5 Gyr ago that was 100 times stronger than today. Furthermore, we model the evolution of the interplanetary magnetic field by a Weber & Davis solar wind model. The ‘external’ influences of the Sun's radiation flux and solar wind flux lead to the formation of an ionospheric obstacle by photoionization, charge exchange and electron impact. For the early Martian conditions we could show that charge exchange was the dominant ionization mechanism. Several hybrid simulations for different stages in the evolution of the Martian atmosphere, at 1, 2, 5, 10, 30 and 100 EUV, were performed to analyze the non-thermal escape processes by ion pick-up, momentum transfer from the solar wind to the ionosphere and detached ionospheric plasma clouds. Our results show a non-linear evolution of the loss rates. Using mean solar wind parameters the simulations result in an oxygen loss equivalent to the depth of a global Martian ocean of about 2.6 m over the last 4.5 Gyr. The induced magnetic field strength could be increased up to about 2000 nT. A simulation run with high solar wind density results in an oxygen loss of a Martian ocean up to 205 m depth during 150 million years after the sun reached the zero age mean sequence (ZAMS). 相似文献
11.
Darrell F. Strobel 《Icarus》2008,193(2):588-594
The upper atmosphere of Titan is currently losing mass at a rate , by hydrodynamic escape as a high density, slow outward expansion driven principally by solar UV heating by CH4 absorption. The hydrodynamic mass loss is essentially CH4 and H2 escape. Their combined escape rates are restricted by power limitations from attaining their limiting rates (and limiting fluxes). Hence they must exhibit gravitational diffusive separation in the upper atmosphere with increasing mixing ratios to eventually become major constituents in the exosphere. A theoretical model with solar EUV heating by N2 absorption balanced by HCN rotational line cooling in the upper thermosphere yields densities and temperatures consistent with the Huygens Atmospheric Science Investigation (HASI) data [Fulchignoni, M., and 42 colleagues, 2005. Nature 438, 785-791], with a peak temperature of ∼185-190 K between 3500-3550 km. This model implies hydrodynamic escape rates of and , or some other combination with a higher H2 escape flux, much closer to its limiting value, at the expense of a slightly lower CH4 escape rate. Nonthermal escape processes are not required to account for the loss rates of CH4 and H2, inferred by the Cassini Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) measurements [Yelle, R.V., Borggren, N., de la Haye, V., Kasprzak, W.T., Niemann, H.B., Müller-Wodarg, I., Waite Jr., J.H., 2006. Icarus 182, 567-576]. 相似文献
12.
The evolution of the martian atmosphere with regard to its H2O inventory is influenced by thermal loss processes of H, H2, nonthermal atmospheric loss processes of H+, H2+, O, O+, CO2, and O2+ into space, as well as by chemical weathering of the surface soil. The evolution of thermal and nonthermal escape processes depend on the history of the intensity of the solar XUV radiation and the solar wind density. Thus, we use actual data from the observation of solar proxies with different ages from the Sun in Time program for reconstructing the Sun's radiation and particle environment from the present to 3.5 Gyr ago. The correlation between mass loss and X-ray surface flux of solar proxies follows a power law relationship, which indicates a solar wind density up to 1000 times higher at the beginning of the Sun's main sequence lifetime. For the study of various atmospheric escape processes we used a gas dynamic test particle model for the estimation of the pick up ion loss rates and considered pick up ion sputtering, as well as dissociative recombination. The loss of H2O from Mars over the last 3.5 Gyr was estimated to be equivalent to a global martian H2O ocean with a depth of about 12 m, which is smaller than the values reported by previous studies. If ion momentum transport, a process studied in detail by Mars Express is significant on Mars, the water loss may be enhanced by a factor of about 2. In our investigation we found that the sum of thermal and nonthermal atmospheric loss rates of H and all nonthermal escape processes of O to space are not compatible with a ratio of 2:1, and is currently close to about 20:1. Escape to space cannot therefore be the only sink for oxygen on Mars. Our results suggest that the missing oxygen (needed for the validation of the 2:1 ratio between H and O) can be explained by the incorporation into the martian surface by chemical weathering processes since the onset of intense oxidation about 2 Gyr ago. Based on the evolution of the atmosphere-surface-interaction on Mars, an overall global surface sink of about 2×1042 oxygen particles in the regolith can be expected. Because of the intense oxidation of inorganic matter, this process may have led to the formation of considerable amounts of sulfates and ferric oxides on Mars. To model this effect we consider several factors: (1) the amount of incorporated oxygen, (2) the inorganic composition of the martian soil and (3) meteoritic gardening. We show that the oxygen incorporation has also implications for the oxidant extinction depth, which is an important parameter to determine required sampling depths on Mars aimed at finding putative organic material. We found that the oxidant extinction depth is expected to lie in a range between 2 and 5 m for global mean values. 相似文献
13.
14.
It is shown that photoionization of vibrationally excited H2 and photodissociation of the H 2 + ions produced thereby constitute a significant electron production route in high UV flux situations. A significant fraction of the electron density in the direction of ζ Oph (?15 km s?1 cloud) deduced from observations may be expected to arise in this way. 相似文献
15.
The temporal response of ion and neutral densities to a geomagnetic storm has been investigated on a global scale with data from consecutive orbits of OGO-6 (>400km) for 4 days covering both magnetically quiet and disturbed conditions. The first response of the neutral atmosphere to the storm takes place in the H and He densities which start to decrease near the time of the storm sudden commencement. The maximum decreases in H and He were more than 40% of the normal density at high latitudes. A subsequent increase in O and N2 densities occurs about 8 hours later than the change in H and He densities, while the relative O and N2 density changes indicate a depletion of atomic oxygen in the lower thermosphere by more than a factor of two. The overall features of the change in the neutral atmosphere, especially the patterns of change for individual species, strongly support the physical picture that energy is deposited primarily at high latitudes during the storm, and the thermosphere structure changes through (1) heating of the lower thermosphere and (2) generation of large scale circulation in the atmosphere with upwelling at high latitudes and subsidence at the equator. The storm-time response of H+ occurs in two distinct regions separated by the low latitude boundary of the light ion trough. While on the poleward side of the boundary the H+ density decreases in a similar manner to the decrease in H density, on the equatorward side of the boundary the H+ decrease occurs about half a day later. It is shown that the decrease of H+ density is principally caused by the decrease in H density for both regions. The difference in H+ response between the two regions is interpreted as the difference in H+ dynamics outside and inside the plasmasphere. The O+ density shows an increase, the pattern of which is rather similar to that for O. Two possibilities for explaining the observed change in O+ density are suggested. One attributes the observed increase in O+ density to an increase in the plasma temperature during the storm. The other possibility is that the increase in the production rate of O+ due to an increase in O density exceeds the increase in the loss rate of O+ due to an increase in N2 density, especially around the time of sunrise. Hence the change in O+ density in the F-region may actually be controlled by the change in O density. 相似文献
16.
Darrell F. Strobel 《Icarus》2010,208(2):878-886
The third most abundant species in Titan’s atmosphere is molecular hydrogen with a tropospheric/lower stratospheric mole fraction of 0.001 derived from Voyager and Cassini infrared measurements. The globally averaged thermospheric H2 mole fraction profile from the Cassini Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) measurements implies a small positive gradient in the H2 mixing ratio from the tropopause region to the lower thermosphere (∼950-1000 km), which drives a downward H2 flux into Titan’s surface comparable to the H2 escape flux out of the atmosphere (∼2 × 1010 cm−2 s−1 referenced to the surface) and requires larger photochemical production rates of H2 than obtained by previous photochemical models. From detailed model calculations based on known photochemistry with eddy, molecular, and thermal diffusion, the tropospheric and thermospheric H2 mole fractions are incompatible by a factor of ∼2. The measurements imply that the downward H2 surface flux is in substantial excess of the speculative threshold value for methanogenic life consumption of H2 (McKay, C.P., Smith, H.D. [2005], Icarus 178, 274-276. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.05.018), but without the extreme reduction in the surface H2 mixing ratio. 相似文献
17.
Michael B. McElroy 《Planetary and Space Science》1975,23(5):763-786
Models are presented for the height distribution of various photochemically active gases in Venus' upper atmosphere. Attention is directed to the chemistry and vertical transport of odd hydrogen (H, OH, HO2, H2O2), odd oxygen (O, O3), free chlorine (Cl, ClO, ClOO, Cl2), CO, O2, H2 and H2O. Supply of O2 may play a limiting role in the formation of a possible H2SO4 cloud on Venus. The supply rate is influenced by both chemical and dynamical processes in the stratosphere, and an analysis of recent spectroscopic data for O2 implies a lower limit to the appropriate eddy coefficient of about 3 × 105 cm2/sec. The abundances of thermospheric O and CO are determined largely by vertical mixing, and an analysis of Mariner 10 measurements of Venus' Lyman α airglow suggests that the eddy coefficient in the lower thermosphere may be as large as 5 × 107cm2sec. The corresponding values for the mixing ratios of O and CO at the ionospheric peak are approximately 1 per cent. The Lyman α data could be reconciled with larger values for thermospheric O, and smaller values for the vertical eddy coefficient, if non-thermal loss processes were to play a dominant role in hydrogen escape, and if the corresponding flux were to exceed 107 atoms/cm2/sec. A sink of this magnitude would imply major depletion of Venus' atmospheric water over geologic time, and would appear to require mixing ratios of H2O in the lower atmosphere in excess of 4 × 10?4. The extensive component to the Lyman α emission measured by Mariner 5 may be due to resonance scattering of sunlight by hot atoms formed by charge transfer with O+. The H scale height, therefore, may reflect the temperature of positive ions in Venus' topside ionosphere. 相似文献
18.
A model of the predawn bulge ionosphere composition and structure is constructed and compared with the ion mass spectrometer measurements from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter during orbits 117 and 120. Particular emphasis is given to the identification of the mass-2 ion which we find unequivocally due to D+ (and not H2+). The atmospheric D/H ratio of 1.4% and 2.5% is obtained at the homopause (～ 130 km) for the two orbits. The H2+ contribution to the mass-2 ion density is less than 10%, and the H2 mixing ratio must be <0.1 ppm at 130 km altitude. The He+ data require a downward He+ flux of ～2 × 107 cm?2 sec?1 in the predawn region which suggest that the light ions also flow across the terminator from day to night along with the observed O+ ion flow. 相似文献
19.
The quadrupole mass spectrometer flown by the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory on STS-4 in 1982 detected large intensities of several ions, primarily O+, H2O+ and H3O+, with energies less than 1.5 e V with respect to the Shuttle Orbiter. Ion-molecule reactions and non-reactive scattering between the outgassing neutral flux from the Orbiter surfaces and the ambient ionic species are identified as the primary source of these low energy ions. 相似文献
20.
Density profiles for CO, O, and O2 in the Cytherean atmosphere above 90 km are plotted with eddy diffusion coefficient (K) as a parameter, subject to the constraint that the mixing ratios of CO and O2 approach their observed value or values under the observed upper limit at the lower boundary. It is then shown that the value of K puts upper limits on the amount of hydrogen (in the form of H2O, HCl, and H2) the atmosphere near 90km can contain. This value is a function of the density and temperature of hydrogen at the critical level and the magnitude of the total escape flux, where unspecified flux mechanisms other than thermal are postulated ad hoc. In general these constraints call for large values of K to accomodate the atomic hydrogen produced by measured mixing ratios of HCl and H2O. Hence they constrain thee amount of O in the upper atmosphere to values well under 1% at 130 km unless there are very large hydrogen escape fluxes, 107 cm?2sec?1 or larger. The freedom to assume arbitrary amounts of H2 in the atmosphere is also restricted. We suggest either very effective escape mechanisms—despite low exospheric hydrogen densities—or novel excitation mechanisms for O(33S) and O(35S) in the upper atmosphere. 相似文献