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1.
Catastrophic winter storms: An escalating problem 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Stanley A. Changnon 《Climatic change》2007,84(2):131-139
Winter storms are a major weather problem in the USA and their losses have been rapidly increasing. A total of 202 catastrophic
winter storms, each causing more than $1 million in damages, occurred during 1949–2003, and their losses totaled $35.2 billion
(2003 dollars). Catastrophic winter storms occurred in most parts of the contiguous USA, but were concentrated in the eastern
half of the nation where 88% of all storm losses occurred. They were most frequent in the Northeast climate district (95 storms),
and were least frequent in the West district (14 catastrophic storms). The annual average number of storms is 3.7 with a 1-year
high of 9 storms, and 1 year had no storms. Temporal distributions of storms and their losses exhibited considerable spatial
variability across the nation. For example, when storms were very frequent in the Northeast, they were infrequent elsewhere,
a result of spatial differences in storm-producing synoptic weather conditions over time. The time distribution of the nation’s
202 storms during 1949–2003 had a sizable downward trend, whereas the nation’s storm losses had a major upward trend for the
55-year period. This increase over time in losses, given the decrease in storm incidences, was a result of significant temporal
increases in storm sizes and storm intensities. Increases in storm intensities were small in the northern sections of the
nation, but doubled across the southern two-thirds of the nation, reflecting a climatic shift in conditions producing intense
winter storms. 相似文献
2.
A 1950–1994 data set of major weather losses developed by the property insurance industry was examined to assess its potential utility in climate change research and use in assessing the relevance of recent extreme losses in the United States. A process for adjusting these historical storm losses to ever-changing factors including dollar values, amount of insurance coverage per area, and the sensitivity of society to damaging storms was developed by the industry. Analysis of the temporal frequency and losses of these adjusted weather catastrophes revealed differences according to the amount of loss. Temporal changes since 1975 in the catastrophes causing $35 to $100 million in loss were strongly related to changes in U.S. population, whereas catastrophes that created insured losses greater than $100 million appear related to both shifting weather conditions and to regional population changes. This evaluation revealed that the industry's catastrophe adjustment technique did not adequately allow for changes in various demographic and social factors affecting damage; however, results suggest use of population values for normalizing the adjusted catastrophe database to allow meaningful studies of their temporal variability. 相似文献
3.
Convective activity dominates the weather of Hungary in the summer. Especially during the first part of the summer, the frequency of severe thunderstorms grows and associated phenomena such as wind storms, hail, sometimes even tornadoes cause serious damage. In this paper, an overview of the severe thunderstorm situation in the Carpathian Basin is presented with a focus on the most frequent phenomena: squall lines. To understand the physical background of these kinds of severe thunderstorms, the terminology of convective components is introduced. Making use of case studies, the roles of convective components are shown for different types of thunderstorm systems. Case studies also show that most of the tornado events are associated with organized thunderstorm systems, especially prefrontal squall lines. 相似文献
4.
Paul Joe Cliff Crozier Norman Donaldson Dave Etkin Erik Brun Steve Clodman 《大气与海洋》2013,51(2):249-302
Abstract Summer severe weather (SSW) can strike suddenly and unexpectedly with disastrous consequences for human activity. Considerable progress has been made in the past ten years in the operational forecasting of SSW. Traditionally, SSW was defined to consist of tornadoes, strong winds, hail, lightning and heavy rain. Hazardous types of strong winds have recently been expanded to include microbursts, macrobursts and surfacing rear inflow jet damage behind mesoscale convective systems. Doppler radar was used to relate surface damage to the appropriate atmospheric phenomena, first diagnostically and then prognostically. This improvement in classification has fedback to and improved the forecast process. Concurrent progress has been made in the use of synoptic observations. The concept of helical wind profiles and improved knowledge of the role of dry mid‐level air has improved the forecasting of tornadoes and strong gusty winds. Moisture flux convergence, derived from surface measurements, shows great promise in identifying areas of storm initiation. Satellite imagery has been used to identify dynamical atmospheric boundaries. Numerical modelling of the interaction of environmental wind profiles and individual thunderstorms has greatly contributed to the understanding of SSW. Studies of spatial and temporal patterns of lightning, both specific cases and climatology, contribute to the forecasting of severe storms. Polarization radar results have shown progress in separating the signals of hail from those of rain and in the improved measurement of heavy rainfalls. Radar observation of clear air boundaries and their interactions show potential for the forecasting of thunderstorm initiation. Though not traditionally considered part of SSW, hurricanes that evolve into extra‐tropical storms share many of the same hazardous features. The progress in computing, communications and display technologies has also made substantial contributions to operational forecasting and to the dissemination of weather warnings. 相似文献
5.
Stanley A. Changnon 《Climatic change》2009,94(3-4):473-482
High wind caused catastrophes, storms causing property losses >$1 million, during 1952–2006 averaged 3.1 events per year in the U.S. The average loss per event was $90 million, and the annual average loss was $354 million. High wind catastrophes were most frequent in the Northeast, Central, and West Coast areas. Storm losses on the West Coast were the nation’s highest, averaging $115 million per event. High wind losses are the nation’s only form of severe weather that maximizes on the West Coast. High wind catastrophes were most frequent in winter, and were infrequent in the late spring and early fall seasons. Loss areas were frequently confined to one state. Losses in the western U.S. and nationally have increased during the 1952–2006 period, both with statistically significant upward trends. 相似文献
6.
Increased hurricane intensities with CO2-induced warming as simulated using the GFDL hurricane prediction system 总被引：5，自引：0，他引：5
The impact of CO2-induced global warming on the intensities of strong hurricanes is investigated using the GFDL regional high-resolution hurricane
prediction system. The large-scale initial conditions and boundary conditions for the regional model experiments, including
SSTs, are derived from control and transient CO2 increase experiments with the GFDL R30-resolution global coupled climate model. In a case study approach, 51 northwest Pacific
storm cases derived from the global model under present-day climate conditions are simulated with the regional model, along
with 51 storm cases for high CO2 conditions. For each case, the regional model is integrated forward for five days without ocean coupling. The high CO2 storms, with SSTs warmer by about 2.2 °C on average and higher environmental convective available potential energy (CAPE),
are more intense than the control storms by about 3–7 m/s (5%–11%) for surface wind speed and 7 to 24 hPa for central surface
pressure. The simulated intensity increases are statistically significant according to most of the statistical tests conducted
and are robust to changes in storm initialization methods. Near-storm precipitation is 28% greater in the high CO2 sample. In terms of storm tracks, the high CO2 sample is quite similar to the control. The mean radius of hurricane force winds is 2 to 3% greater for the composite high
CO2 storm than for the control, and the high CO2 storms penetrate slightly higher into the upper troposphere. More idealized experiments were also performed in which an initial
storm disturbance was embedded in highly simplified flow fields using time mean temperature and moisture conditions from the
global climate model. These idealized experiments support the case study results and suggest that, in terms of thermodynamic
influences, the results for the NW Pacific basin are qualitatively applicable to other tropical storm basins.
Received: 20 July 1998/Accepted: 24 December 1998 相似文献
7.
Most, if not all forests in the Caribbean are subject to occasional disturbances from hurricanes. If current general circulation model (GCM) predictions are correct, with doubled atmospheric CO2 (2 × CO2), the tropical Atlantic will be between 1 °C and 4 °C warmer than it is today. With such a warming, more than twice as many hurricanes per year could be expected in the Caribbean. Furthermore, Emanuael (1987) indicates that in a warmed world the destructive potential of Atlantic hurricanes could be increased by 40% to 60%. While speculative, these increases would dramatically change the disturbance regimes affecting tropical forests in the region and might alter forest structure and composition. Global warming impacts through increased hurricane damage on Caribbean forests are presented.An individual tree, gap dynamics forest ecosystem model was used to simulate the range of possible hurricane disturbance regimes which could affect the Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico. Model storm frequency ranged from no storms at all up to one storm per year; model storm intensity varied from no damage up to 100% mortality of trees. The model does not consider the effects of changing temperature and rainfall patterns on the forest. Simulation results indicate that with the different hurricane regimes a range of forest types are possible, ranging from mature forest with large trees, to an area in which forest trees are never allowed to reach maturity. 相似文献
8.
为全面和系统研究北京及周边地区阵风锋各方面特征,使用2006—2015年暖季（5—9月）北京多普勒雷达探测资料及北京、河北、天津自动气象站观测资料对北京及周边地区的阵风锋过程进行综合统计分析。结果表明,346次阵风锋过程有232次触发了对流,占总数的67%,表明阵风锋对雷暴具有较强的抬升触发能力。阵风锋在6—8月出现的日数占5—9月阵风锋总日数的85%;出现的时段主要是午后至傍晚（12—21时,北京时）,维持时间0.5—3 h;阵风锋在北京东南方向生成的数量最多,且触发对流的次数也最多;其次为偏东和东北方向;偏南和西南方向生成阵风锋数量居中,而偏北、偏西和西北地区阵风锋个例相对较少,触发对流的比例也相对较低。产生阵风锋的母风暴中48%为孤立雷暴（包括孤立多单体和超级单体风暴）,31%为雷暴群,21%为飑线;97%的母风暴最强回波在50 dBz以上,阵风锋的回波强度为10—25 dBz。91%的阵风锋移动速度集中在10—60 km/h,84%的阵风锋与母风暴的最大距离为1—60 km;在母风暴回波强度减弱到30 dBz以下时,80%的阵风锋能够继续维持的时间不超过2 h。阵风锋母风暴向东南方向移动的个例最多,从阵风锋和母风暴移动方向的关系来看,阵风锋与母风暴移向一致的情况占比最高,为32%,其次为母风暴无移动及阵风锋弧形扩散情况,各占17%;阵风锋与母风暴移向相反情况所占比例最低,只有3%。最后统计了阵风锋经过地面自动气象站时,自动观测量的变化情况。结果显示,阵风锋在经过地面自动气象站时会造成风速增大、温度降低、相对湿度增大、气压升高。 相似文献
9.
应用雷电定位系统和高空观测资料并结合雷达回波资料, 对广州地区雷暴过程云-地闪特征进行分析, 并就有、无云-地闪出现的两组不同对流天气过程的环境条件进行了比较研究。结果表明:广州地区的雷暴过程以负的云-地闪为主, 负云-地闪所占比例在90%以上。云-地闪发生频率与雷暴系统强度演变有直接联系, 对于同一系统来说, 随着系统回波强度的增强, 云-地闪发生的频率也增高。但不同系统中, 云-地闪发生频率有很大不同, 回波强(弱)的对流系统并不意味着云-地闪发生的频率就高(低)。有云-地闪记录的对流天气过程具有更大的垂直切变、更高的相对风暴螺旋度以及更多的对流抑制能量, 云-地闪现象更易于出现在更加有组织和更强的对流系统中。研究还发现广州及周边城市区域对雷暴系统回波强度及云-地闪现象可能有影响, 两个典型个例分析表明, 雷暴系统移经城市区域时回波强度减弱, 云-地闪发生频率减小, 雷暴移过城市区域后, 强度可重新加强, 云-地闪发生频率增大。 相似文献
10.
雷暴与强对流临近天气预报技术进展 总被引：81，自引：22，他引：59
临近预报指0—6h(0—2h为重点)的高时空分辨率的天气预报,预报对象是该时段内出现明显变化的天气现象,主要包括雷暴、强对流、降水、冬季暴风雪、冻雨、沙尘暴、低能见度(雾)、天空云量等,其中,以雷暴和强对流天气的临近预报最具挑战性。综述了针对雷暴和强对流天气的以主观预报为主、结合客观算法的临近预报技术,同时讨论了高分辨率数值预报模式在临近预报中的应用。主观临近预报技术包括基于多普勒天气雷达观测数据并结合其他资料(常规高空和地面观测、气象卫星云图、快速同化循环的数值预报产品等)对雷暴生成、发展和衰减,特别是对强对流天气(包括强冰雹、龙卷、雷暴大风和对流性暴雨)的临近预报,客观算法包括几种应用最广的雷达回波或云图外推算法和强对流天气识别技术。高分辨率数值预报模式的应用包括与雷达回波外推融合延长临近预报时效,与各种观测资料融合得到快速更新的三维格点资料为雷暴和强对流近风暴环境的判断提供重要参考。 相似文献
11.
利用常州基本观测站1952-2007年长序列的雷暴观测资料和多普勒雷达回波资料,采用数理统计和小波变换方法,对常州雷暴的变化规律、周期特征以及雷达回波特征进行了分析.结果表明:(1)雷暴日数年代际间差异显著.(2)雷暴年际变化很大,最大值为最小值的5.9倍;雷暴日数总体呈显著减少的趋势.(3)夏季为雷暴高发季节,占总雷暴日数的66.8%.(4)月际变化差异大,雷暴集中出现在4-9月,其中7、8月为雷暴高发月.(5)从日分布来看,傍晚出现次数最多,其次为下午,上午出现最少.(6)常州年雷暴日数分布主要表现为12a(年代际)震荡周期贯穿在整个56年里;1952-2004年存在着非常明显7a左右的次周期特征;1968-2007年还存在3～4a的小周期特征.(7)常州雷暴的雷达回波基本反射率因子一般在30～65dBz之间,回波顶高为6～17km.(9)常州雷暴雷达回波移向主要有五类:西南东北向、东南西北向、西北东南向、旋转、局地生成.另外对常州雷雨大风和冰雹进行了统计分析,发现:7月为雷雨大风最高发月;5月和7月为冰雹最高发月. 相似文献
12.
2005年极端天气和气候事件及其他相关事件的概要回顾 总被引：13，自引：6，他引：7
极端气候在2005年创下了多项记录:2005年北半球的平均温度达到有历史记录以来的最高值;印度孟买,7月27日的暴雨使降雨量在24 h内达到了944 mm,创下历史最高;10月飓风“文斯”袭击西班牙海岸,成为第一个登陆欧洲大陆的飓风。此外,达到最高强度等级的飓风“卡特里娜”、“丽塔”和“威尔玛”给美国、墨西哥等美洲国家造成重创;我国东南沿海和台湾等地多次遭强台风袭击,华南、东北和渭河流域经历特大洪涝灾害;葡萄牙、西班牙等欧洲国家遭遇了自20世纪40年代后期以来最严重的旱灾。这些都表明2005年是极端天气和气候发生频繁及气象灾害很严重的一年。 相似文献
13.
Space distribution is considered of thunderstorm activity in Northern Caucasus during 1936–2006. Area distribution is presented
of numbers of days with thunderstorm and of thunderstorm duration. Time variations are analyzed of mean numbers of the days
with thunderstorms and of the thunderstorm mean duration, which probably represent a part of climate changes at the area under
consideration. The largest variations of thunderstorm activity occur in the western part of the Northern Caucasus, where annual
number of the days with thunderstorms reaches 70. Minimum changes in the thunderstorm characteristics occur in the eastern
part of the area, with annual number of the days with thunderstorms equal to 25. 相似文献
14.
上海地区移动型雷暴阵风锋特征统计分析 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
文章利用常规天气资料、双多普勒雷达资料、GFS 3 km分辨率分析场资料以及地面自动站资料等,统计分析了上海地区2009-2014年共18次移动型雷暴产生的阵风锋的个例,包括天气背景、温湿环境特征以及阵风锋在雷达图上的特征等。根据阵风锋生成的时段以及与其母体雷暴的相互作用和影响,将移动型雷暴产生的阵风锋分为两类:(1)一类出现在雷暴发展、成熟阶段,阵风锋通常与雷暴保持一定的距离同向运动,出现阵风锋的雷暴主体通常伴有高悬的后侧人流急流,生命史长达2h以上;(2)另一类出现在雷暴的减弱消亡阶段,出现后即逐渐远离雷暴,出现阵风锋的雷暴主体通常伴有从雷暴系统后侧倾斜向下正好到达雷暴前侧阵风锋处的后侧人流急流。阵风锋出现后,逐渐远离雷暴运动,大部分阵风锋(12个个例)出现在雷暴移动方向的前侧,与雷暴移动同向,少数阵风锋(4个个例)出现在雷暴移动方向的异侧,与雷暴移动不同向。统计分析结果表明:第一类阵风锋一方面与雷暴同向移动,不断将其前侧低层的暖湿空气抬升,并沿着阵风锋输送到雷暴中去;另一方面,由于较强的垂直风切变和较强的对流有效位能对后侧人流急流高度的维持起到了关键作用,高悬的后侧人流急流和垂直风切变共同产生的正涡度和冷池产生的负涡度平衡,有利于维持雷暴的发展传播。因此,阵风锋后侧的雷暴持续稳定的发展,并在其后侧可观测到雷暴的新生。第二类阵风锋生成后即逐渐远离雷暴主体,仅以孤立波的形式传播,受经过的环境的影响,其后侧的干冷气流的性质逐渐减弱。与雷暴同向运动的阵风锋切断了暖湿气流向雷暴的输送,不利于雷暴的发展;同时在弱-中等切变和弱-中等对流有效位能的环境中,从雷暴后侧向前侧倾斜向下的后侧人流急流和冷池共同产生的负涡度强于垂直风切变产生的正涡度,强冷池前沿的上升气流向后倾斜,不利于新对流单体的发展,雷暴大都在阵风锋出现2h内消亡。 相似文献
15.
利用1961—2005年宁夏25个气象站雷暴观测资料,根据雷暴发生特点对雷暴天气过程进行划分,得到全区(大部)性、区域性Ⅰ、区域性Ⅱ、持续性、局部性、分散性6类雷暴天气过程;并利用1996—2005年NCEP/NCAR逐日全球再分析资料,对10年来5—9月263例区域性雷暴天气过程进行分析,总结得到有利于宁夏雷暴天气发生的主要环流分型有4类:蒙古冷涡(槽)型、东北冷涡后部横槽型、河套低涡型、西风槽型。其中,前3种类型下易出现持续性雷暴天气过程。易于发生雷暴的环境场特征为宁夏处于500 hPa"西高东低"环流形势下的(弱)西北气流中,地面一般为气旋或热倒槽所控制,蒙古国至我国新疆一带或河西一带有冷锋、切变东移南下,中低层有一定的水汽和辐合抬升条件。 相似文献
16.
为研究雷暴发展过程中的雷达回波特征,利用S波段双偏振多普勒天气雷达对南京地区的雷暴进行了观测研究,利用雷达回波资料、地面大气电场数据、闪电定位数据及探空资料对比分析了2014年一次冬季雷暴过程与夏季雷暴的雷暴回波特征差异。分析结果表明:冬季雷暴的对流发展高度明显低于夏季雷暴,持续时间短,水平尺度小,有较大比例的正闪;影响冬季雷暴与夏季雷暴的成雷对流高度差异的主要因素是环境温度差异,冬季雷暴在较低的高度上,具有较低的环境温度,更有利于雷暴起电;对流单体中,霰粒子的存在是雷暴的一项重要特征。 相似文献
17.
Atlantic Basin Hurricanes: Indices of Climatic Changes 总被引：7，自引：0，他引：7
Christopher W. Landsea Roger A. Pielke Jr. Alberto M. Mestas-Nuñez John A. Knaff 《Climatic change》1999,42(1):89-129
Accurate records of basinwide Atlantic and U.S. landfalling hurricanes extend back to the mid 1940s and the turn of the century, respectively, as a result of aircraft reconnaissance and instrumented weather stations along the U.S. coasts. Such long-term records are not exceeded elsewhere in the tropics. The Atlantic hurricanes, U.S. landfalling hurricanes and U.S. normalized damage time series are examined for interannual trends and multidecadal variability. It is found that only weak linear trends can be ascribed to the hurricane activity and that multidecadal variability is more characteristic of the region. Various environmental factors including Caribbean sea level pressures and 200mb zonal winds, the stratospheric Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, African West Sahel rainfall and Atlantic sea surface temperatures, are analyzed for interannual links to the Atlantic hurricane activity. All show significant, concurrent relationships to the frequency, intensity and duration of Atlantic hurricanes. Additionally, variations in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation are significantly linked to changes in U.S. tropical cyclone-caused damages. Finally, much of the multidecadal hurricane activity can be linked to the Atlantic Multidecadal Mode - an empirical orthogonal function pattern derived from a global sea surface temperature record. Such linkages may allow for prediction of Atlantic hurricane activity on a multidecadal basis. These results are placed into the context of climate change and natural hazards policy. 相似文献
18.
Thunder-day occurrences during a 100-year period based on data from carefully screened records of 86 first-order stations distributed across the United States were assessed for temporal fluctuations and trends during 1896–1995. Short-term (<10-year) fluctuations of adjacentstations were often dissimilar reflecting localized differences in storm activity in a few years, making spatial interpretations difficult. But, temporal fluctuations based on 20-year and longer periods exhibited regional coherence reflecting the control of large, synoptic-scale weather systems on the distribution of thunderstorms over broad areas. Classification of station fluctuations based on 20-year periods revealed six types of distributions existed and they formed 12 discrete areas across the nation. One type present in the lower Midwest and the South had a peak in storm activity in 1916–1935 followed by a general decline to 1976–1995.A second type maximizing at the same time had its minimum earlier, in 1956–1975. Another distribution found at stations in the upper Midwest and Northeast had a mid-century peak (1936–1955) with a recent minimum in1976–1995. A fourth distribution also peaked in 1936–1955 but had an early minimumin 1896–1915, and it mainly occurred in the northern plains and Rocky Mountains. A fifth distribution peaked during 1956–1975 and was foundat stations in four areas including the central High Plains, Southwest, northern Great Lakes, and Southeast. The sixth temporal distribution showed a steady increase in storm activity during the 100-year period, peaking in 1976–1995, and covered a large area extending from the Pacific Northwestacross the central Rockies and into the southern High Plains. The national average distribution based on all station values peaked in mid century. The national distribution differs markedly from several regional distributions illustrating the importance of using regional analysis to assess temporal fluctuations in severe weather conditions in the nation. The 100-year linear trends of the 86 stations defined six regions across the U.S. Significant upward trends existed over most of the western two-thirds of the nation, unchanging trends existed in the northern plains and Midwest, and downward trends were found in most of the nation's east. The up trends in storm-day frequencies in the southern plains occurred where storm damage is greatest and where demographic changes have added to storm losses over time. The national patterns of trends and storm distributions were similar to those found for hail. The temporal distributions of storm activity helped explain recent increases in major storms and their losses, conditions which have increased in the west and south. 相似文献
19.
A unique historical data set describing the 142 storms producing losses in excess of $100 million in the United States during the 1950–89 period were analyzed to describe their temporal characteristics. These weather disasters (WDs) caused $66.2 billion in losses, 76% of the nation's insured losses in this period. Disasters were most prevalent in the south, southeast, northeast, and central U.S., with few in and west of the Rockies. The incidence of WDs was high in the 1950s, low in the 1960s-early 1970s, and peaked in the 1980s. Losses due to WDs peaked in the 1950s, again in the late 1960s, and with a lesser peak after 1985. The areal extent of storm losses peaked after 1975 and was least in the 1960s. The temporal variations of the three storm measures (incidence, losses, and extent) had poor agreement, and agreed only when they peaked in the 1950s. Regionally-derived time distributions of WDs showed marked north-south differences with a U-shaped 40-year distribution in the northern half of the nation, whereas southern regions had a relatively flat trend until achieving a peak in the 1980s. The temporal distributions of hurricane-caused disasters differed regionally, with the distributions in the southern, southeastern, and northeastern U.S. each quite different. Temporal distributions of thunderstorm and winter storm-produced disasters were regionally more uniform. The national 5-year WD frequencies correlated moderately well with annual mean temperatures which explained 40% of the variability found in WDs during 1950–89. Weather disasters peaked in the relatively warm-dry 1950s and again in the warm-wet 1980s, and were least in the cool-wet 1960s and 1970s. The distribution of WDs during 1950–89 appears positively related to the temporal fluctuations in cyclonic activity. 相似文献
20.
W. David Rust Donald R. MacGorman Eric C. Bruning Stephanie A. Weiss Paul R. Krehbiel Ronald J. Thomas William Rison Timothy Hamlin Jeremiah Harlin 《Atmospheric Research》2005,76(1-4):247
Balloon-borne electric field soundings and lightning mapping data have been analyzed for three of the storms that occurred in the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study field program in 2000 to determine if the storms had inverted-polarity electrical structures. The polarities of all or some of the vertically stacked charge regions in such storms are opposite to the polarities observed at comparable heights in normal storms. Analyses compared the charge structures inferred from electric field soundings in the storms with charges inferred from three-dimensional lightning mapping data. Charge structures were inferred from electric field profiles by combining the one-dimensional approximation of Gauss's law with additional information from three-dimensional patterns in the electric field vectors. The three different ways of inferring the charge structure in the storms were found to complement each other and to be consistent overall. Charge deposition by lightning possibly occurred and increased the charge complexity of one of the storms.Many of the cloud flashes in each case were inverted-polarity flashes. Two storms produced ground flash activity comprised predominantly of positive ground flashes. One storm, which was an isolated thunderstorm, produced inverted-polarity cloud flashes, but no flashes to ground. The positive and negative thunderstorm charge regions were found at altitudes where, respectively, negative and positive charge would be found in normal-polarity storms. Thus, we conclude that these storms had anomalous and inverted-polarity electrical structures. Collectively, these three cases (along with the limited cases in the refereed literature) provide additional evidence that thunderstorms can have inverted-polarity electrical structures. 相似文献