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1.
Salt tectonics driven by differential sediment loading: stability analysis and finite-element experiments 总被引：11，自引：0，他引：11
Lykke Gemmer Steven J. Ings† Sergei Medvedev Christopher Beaumont 《Basin Research》2004,16(2):199-218
At many continental margins, differential sediment loading on an underlying salt layer drives salt deformation and has a significant impact on the structural evolution of the basin. We use 2‐D finite‐element modelling to investigate systems in which a linear viscous salt layer underlies a frictional‐plastic overburden of laterally varying thickness. In these systems, differential pressure induces the flow of viscous salt, and the overburden experiences updip deviatoric tension and downdip compression. A thin‐sheet analytical stability criterion for the system is derived and is used to predict conditions under which the sedimentary overburden will be unstable and fail, and to estimate the initial velocities of the system. The analytical predictions are in acceptable agreement with initial velocity patterns of the numerical models. In addition to initial stability analyses, the numerical model is used to investigate the subsequent finite deformation. As the systems evolve, overburden extension and salt diapirism occur in the landward section and contractional structures develop in the seaward section. The system evolution depends on the relative widths of the salt basin and the length scale of the overburden thickness variation. In narrow salt basins, overburden deformation is localised and characterised by high strain rates, which cause the system to reach a gravitational equilibrium and salt movement to cease earlier than for wide salt basins. Sedimentation enhances salt evacuation by maintaining a differential pressure in the salt. Continued sedimentary filling of landward extensional basins suppresses landward salt diapirism. Sediment progradation leads to seaward propagation of the landward extensional structures and depocentres. At slow sediment progradation rates, the viscous flow can be faster than the sediment progradation, leading to efficient salt evacuation and salt weld formation beneath the landward section. Fast sediment progradation suppresses the viscous flow, leaving salt pillows beneath the prograding wedge. 相似文献
2.
S. C. Constable M. W. McElhinny† P. L. McFadden† 《Geophysical Journal International》1984,79(3):893-910
Summary. Three 200 km Schlumberger resistivity soundings have been conducted over the central Australian shield, using telephone lines to obtain the large electrode spacings. These represent the first crustal scale controlled source electrical study to be carried out in this continent. A computer controlled data acquisition system was used which allowed precise measurements to be made with only modest emission currents (0.1–0.5 A).
The three soundings, centred on the towns of Renner Springs, Wauchope and Aileron, showed the southern part of the study area (the Arunta Block) to be an order of magnitude more resistive than the more northerly section (the Tennant Creek Block). This difference correlates with the higher heat flow of the Tennant Creek Block. A lowering of apparent resistivity at large electrode spacings for one sounding (Wauchope) is taken to indicate the presence of a low resistivity layer in the middle crust, at a depth less than 20 km. However, the effect of the highly conductive overburden characteristic of inland Australia, combined with the large transverse resistance of the crust, prevented the other two soundings from detecting such a layer. Without support from these two soundings, it is impossible to be sure that the lowered resistivity at Wauchope is not caused merely by lateral variations in near-surface resistivity.
The data also show that crustal resistivities are much lower than the expected values for dry rock, whether or not a low resistivity layer is included in the model. This implies a widespread occurrence of free water in the crust, with greater amounts occurring at depth if the low resistivity zone exists. 相似文献
The three soundings, centred on the towns of Renner Springs, Wauchope and Aileron, showed the southern part of the study area (the Arunta Block) to be an order of magnitude more resistive than the more northerly section (the Tennant Creek Block). This difference correlates with the higher heat flow of the Tennant Creek Block. A lowering of apparent resistivity at large electrode spacings for one sounding (Wauchope) is taken to indicate the presence of a low resistivity layer in the middle crust, at a depth less than 20 km. However, the effect of the highly conductive overburden characteristic of inland Australia, combined with the large transverse resistance of the crust, prevented the other two soundings from detecting such a layer. Without support from these two soundings, it is impossible to be sure that the lowered resistivity at Wauchope is not caused merely by lateral variations in near-surface resistivity.
The data also show that crustal resistivities are much lower than the expected values for dry rock, whether or not a low resistivity layer is included in the model. This implies a widespread occurrence of free water in the crust, with greater amounts occurring at depth if the low resistivity zone exists. 相似文献
3.
Unidirectional freezing experiments under overburden pressure were carried out, in order to study the driving force of mois-ture migration of remodeled clay during freezing, through improving the indoo... 相似文献
4.
Fault plane solutions using relative amplitudes of P and pP 总被引：2，自引：1，他引：1
R. G. Pearce 《Geophysical Journal International》1977,50(2):381-394
Summary. One way of finding the fault plane orientations of small shallow earthquakes is by the generation of theoretical P -wave seismograms to match those observed at several distant stations. Here, a technique for determining the uniqueness of fault plane solutions computed using the modelling method of Douglas et al . is described. Relative amplitudes of P and pP , and their polarities if unambiguous, are measured on the observed seismograms to be modelled, and appropriate confidence limits are assigned to each measurement. A systematic search is then made for all fault plane orientations which satisfy these observations.
Examples show that if P and pP are not severely contaminated by other arrivals, a well-defined and unique fault plane orientation can often be computed using as few as three stations well distributed in azimuth. Further, even if pP is not identifiable on a particular seismogram, then an upper bound on its amplitude – deduced from the observed coda – still places a significantly greater constraint on the fault plane orientation than would be provided by a P onset polarity alone. Modelling takes account of all such information, and is able to further eliminate incompatible solutions (e.g. by the correct simulation of sP ). It follows that if solutions can be found which satisfy many observed seismograms, this places high significance on the validity of the assumed double-couple source mechanism.
This relative amplitude technique is contrasted with the familiar first motion method of fault plane determination which requires many polarity readings, whose reliabilities are difficult to quantify. It is also shown that fault plane orientations can be determined for earthquakes below the magnitude at which first motion solutions become unreliable or impossible. 相似文献
Examples show that if P and pP are not severely contaminated by other arrivals, a well-defined and unique fault plane orientation can often be computed using as few as three stations well distributed in azimuth. Further, even if pP is not identifiable on a particular seismogram, then an upper bound on its amplitude – deduced from the observed coda – still places a significantly greater constraint on the fault plane orientation than would be provided by a P onset polarity alone. Modelling takes account of all such information, and is able to further eliminate incompatible solutions (e.g. by the correct simulation of sP ). It follows that if solutions can be found which satisfy many observed seismograms, this places high significance on the validity of the assumed double-couple source mechanism.
This relative amplitude technique is contrasted with the familiar first motion method of fault plane determination which requires many polarity readings, whose reliabilities are difficult to quantify. It is also shown that fault plane orientations can be determined for earthquakes below the magnitude at which first motion solutions become unreliable or impossible. 相似文献
5.
Acceleration of buoyancy-driven fractures and magmatic dikes beneath the free surface 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
By performing buoyancy-driven fracture experiments in brittle gelatin we observe that the ascent velocity of a fracture containing a finite volume of fluid increases when approaching the free surface. We theoretically describe this free-surface effect and quantify it by introducing an effective depth-dependent fracture toughness and developing an ascent model on the basis of linear fracture mechanics. We develop a successful inversion approach and resolve the actual and critical fracture length and the ascent velocity far away from the free surface from the observation of the fracture tip migration alone. Other parameters, as the fluid volume included in the fracture and the in situ fracture toughness, can be derived. Applying the model and inversion to the 1998 eruption at Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island, reveals estimates of the length and critical length of the feeding magma batch, the magma batch volume and the in situ fracture toughness. It further indicates that the ascent velocity of the magma batch was probably much smaller at greater depths and that the batch might have been initiated several months or years before the eruption. 相似文献
6.
Distribution and morphology of sinkholes triggered by flooding following Tropical Storm Alberto at Albany, Georgia, USA 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Flooding of the Flint River in July 1994 triggered the collapse of at least 312 sinkholes in the karstic Dougherty Plain at Albany, Georgia. We examined the distribution and morphology of these new sinkholes to evaluate the mode of formation, to characterize early stages of the evolution of sinkhole form, and to estimate the lowering of the surface associated with the development of new sinkholes.Eighty-eight percent of sinkholes occur inside the limits of flooding, especially in areas of sandy overburden, and they often follow joint-controlled linear trends. Sinkhole dimensions are log-normally distributed with median values of circumference = 5.7 m, length = 1.8 m, width = 1.6 m, and depth = 0.7 m; asymmetry (L:W) = 1.2. Cross-sectional forms range from narrow cylinders to large bowls, with many sinkholes having undercut sides.Flooding triggered the formation of sinkholes by saturating and liquefying overburden, which caused soil arches to collapse and flow into cavities in bedrock. The prevalence of sinkholes near the periphery of flooding suggests that drainage and loss of buoyant support as flood waters subsided may also have contributed to failure. A volume ratio index is used to quantify the three dimensional geometric form of sinkholes. Initially, small cylindrical shafts open over a bedrock joint, followed by progressive slumping that leads to widening and increases in volume to a final bowl form. Estimates of the aggregate volume of overburden transported underground in flooded areas range from 7,990 to 11,130 m3. Averaged over flooded areas, this accounts for 0.26 to 0.37 mm/km2 lowering of the surface. Based on a 500 year recurrence interval for the flood event, values for lowering of the surface range from 0.52 to 0.74 mm per 1,000 years. These values are an order of magnitude less than estimates of carbonate dissolution and suggest that transport of overburden underground is limited by triggering events. 相似文献
7.
Leonardo M. Pichel Christopher A.-L. Jackson Frank Peel Tim P. Dooley 《Basin Research》2020,32(3):453-484
Base-salt relief influences salt flow, producing three-dimensionally complex strains and multiphase deformation within the salt and its overburden. Understanding how base-salt relief influences salt-related deformation is important to correctly interpret salt basin kinematics and distribution of structural domains, which have important implications to understand the development of key petroleum system elements. The São Paulo Plateau, Santos Basin, Brazil is characterized by a >2 km thick, mechanically layered Aptian salt layer deposited above prominent base-salt relief. We use 3D seismic reflection data, and physical and conceptual kinematic models to investigate how gravity-driven translation above thick salt, underlain by complex base-salt relief, generated a complex framework of salt structures and minibasins. We show that ramp-syncline basins developed above and downdip of the main pre-salt highs record c. 30 km of Late Cretaceous-Paleocene basinward translation. As salt and overburden translated downdip, salt flux variations caused by the base-salt relief resulted in non-uniform motion of the cover, and the simultaneous development of extensional and contractional structures. Contraction preferentially occurred where salt flow locally decelerated, above landward-dipping base-salt and downdip of basinward-dipping ramps. Extension occurred at the top of basinward-dipping ramps and base-salt plateaus, where salt flow locally accelerated. Where the base of the salt layer was broadly flat, structures evolved primarily by load-driven passive diapirism. At the edge of or around smaller base-salt highs, salt structures were affected by plan-view rotation, shearing and divergent flow. The magnitude of translation (c. 30 km) and the style of salt-related deformation observed on the São Paulo Plateau afford an improved kinematic model for the enigmatic Albian Gap, suggesting this structure formed by a combination of basinward salt expulsion and regional extension. These observations contribute to the long-lived debate regarding the mechanisms of salt tectonics on the São Paulo Plateau, ultimately improving our general understanding of the effects of base-salt relief on salt tectonics in other basins. 相似文献
8.
基于变点分析法提取地势起伏度——以青藏高原为例 总被引：11，自引：1，他引：10
以青藏高原区域大尺度SRTM3-DEM为数据源,运用GIS的窗口递增分析法依次计算2×2、3×3、4×4、5×5、…、32×32窗口下的地势起伏度,然后采用均值变点法科学的分析平均地势起伏度的最佳统计面积并进行分级分析,得出实验区最佳分析窗口面积为1.17 km2,地势起伏度可分出八级,其中小起伏山地分布最广。高原边缘的地势起伏度普遍较大主要是由于构造运动与河流朔源侵蚀作用强烈;而高原内部地势较为平缓,冰川、冻土作用下的侵蚀搬运可能对地势起伏的影响更大。 相似文献
9.
Yuan Yong Chen Zhongshun Yuan Chaofeng Zhu Cheng Wei Hongmin Zhang Xinwang 《Natural Resources Research》2020,29(2):931-948
Auger mining (AM) is an effective and safe way to excavate an extremely thin protective layer. This method can relieve pressure and enhance the permeability of an ultra-contiguous coal layer with high gas capacity. However, there have been few studies on AM. Based on the conditions of a coal mine in Shanxi Province, China, theoretical analyses, laboratory tests and numerical simulations were used to analyze the evolution law of the overburden permeability in an AM face. A stress–damage–permeability coupling model was proposed, and a numerical simulation algorithm for fluid–solid coupling with FLAC software was established. Through this method, the evolution law of stress and permeability and its influencing factors of the overburden of the AM face were found. The intermediate coal pillar (ICP) width and the AM height and length are the main factors influencing the permeability evolution of the AM face. The first factor determines the damage state of the ICP in the goaf, and the last two factors influence the zone size with permeability enhancement of the protected layer. Therefore, reasonable AM parameter design is the key to both safe mining operations in the AM face and pressure relief and permeability enhancement.
相似文献10.
The study is aimed at investigating the response of the riffle–pool sequence to increased energy expenditure in the horizontal plane through meander development. It emphasizes field measurements of riffle–pool height and spacing and their links with meander morphology. River reaches in southern Ontario (Canada) were surveyed and statistical relations were established between parameters describing riffle–pool morphology (sequence length and amplitude) and planform curvature. The results indicate a lengthening of the sequence with increased total angular deflection along the measured reaches. Further analysis suggests that this lengthening occurs in the pool as a result of meander development. Apparently, as the path length extends beyond a critical threshold for a given bed material size, the transport capacity of the sequence is compromised. This may promote an initial shortening of the downstream riffle, with depositional processes ultimately forming a new riffle slightly upstream to achieve a new equilibrium. Additional extensive data sets provided by the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority on riffle–pool morphology also suggest that bed material size plays a significant role in controlling riffle–pool morphology. 相似文献
11.
Active diapirs are commonly observed in sedimentary basins worldwide. Factors controlling overburden deformation processes and patterns during the active rise of active diapirs, such as sediment cohesion and overburden thickness, are not well understood. We have utilised the discrete element numerical simulation method to simulate active diapirism in models comprised of sediments with varying cohesions and roof thicknesses. We found that sediment cohesion can significantly affect overburden deformation with low-cohesion sediments favouring the generation of a broad, smooth forced fold and a symmetric graben, while high-cohesion sediments favour the formation of master reverse faults and preferentially uplifted and rotated fault blocks in their hangingwalls in the central crest, with an overall asymmetric structural geometry. Moreover, overburden thickness does not significantly affect structural styles in the overburden. Our results also suggest that the higher the sediment cohesion, the higher the amplitude (the lower the wavelength) of the forced fold above the rising diapir becomes. Our models produced a wide spectrum of deformation structures that resemble those in nature and reveal a strong link between structural styles and sediment diagenesis in the context of active diapir-piercing sediments with varying degrees of lithification. 相似文献
12.
13.
Fault plane solutions using relative amplitudes of P and surface reflections: further studies 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
R. G. PeaiCe MOD 《Geophysical Journal International》1980,60(3):459-487
Summary. The method of computing fault plane solutions for small shallow earthquakes using relative amplitudes of P and pP , as described in an earlier paper, is extended to include sP. It is shown theoretically that even a single relative amplitude observation can impose a severe constraint on the orientation of an assumed double couple source, and earthquakes studied in the earlier paper are reprocessed with the inclusion of sP information. The method is also extended to deep earthquakes using long period seismograms, and to undersea earthquakes by allowing for the effect of a sea layer on the surface-reflected phases. Also described are options to search only a restricted range of source orientations, and to identify those orientations which are incompatible with one or more relative amplitudes. These options are applied to several earthquakes, to demonstrate the scope of the relative amplitude method. Results are illustrated using the seismic modelling method of Hudson (1969a, b) and Douglas, Hudson & Blamey (1972). 相似文献
14.
Mahdi Heidari Maria A. Nikolinakou Peter B. Flemings Michael R. Hudec 《Basin Research》2017,29(3):363-376
We use a simple analytical model to estimate the stress field in density‐driven, rising salt domes and adjacent sediments, and to describe the evolution of these domes. We show that the pressure exerted by the salt pushing out against its wall rocks (the salt pressure) decreases linearly up the flank of the dome, but is always greater than the overburden stress. In fact, the salt pressure normal to the dome boundary is everywhere the maximum principal stress, whereas the hoop stress parallel to the circumference of the dome is the minimum stress. In addition, we quantitatively describe the critical stages of salt dome evolution (initiation, upbuilding, and downbuilding), relating these stages to sedimentation rate and basin thickness. This analysis also shows that even the highest sedimentation rates are unlikely to accumulate enough sediments to bury downbuilding domes as long as the salt supply is unrestricted. Despite the simplicity of the model, its predictions are in good agreement with field observations near salt domes. Overall, our analytical model can provide critical insight into the stress field perturbation in and near rising salt domes and can be used to assess the accuracy of numerical models and field measurements near these domes. 相似文献
15.
Local scouring and morphological adjustments in steep channels with check-dam sequences 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
This paper describes bed profile and grain size distribution adjustments in a mountain river (Maso di Spinelle River, Italian Alps) stabilized by a sequence of boulder check-dams. The control works were originally designed to simulate the geometry of natural step-pool channels, where tumbling flow is the dominant hydraulic regime. Local scouring downstream of 29 drop structures is analysed through the use of nondimensional parameters where maximum scour depth and scour length are normalised to the drop height. Prior laboratory data reveal a pattern similar to field scours, where complex interactions occur between drop height, critical flow depth, and step spacing. The linkage between scour length and depth is also discussed. There seems to be a maximum step height for impinging jets that is approximately twice the drop height; this maximum may explain the upper limit of the steepness factor found in high-gradient step-pool streams. If such a maximum upper limit is confirmed by further studies, this may aid designs of foundation heights for transverse control works in steep channels. 相似文献
16.
Extending the conversation on socially engaged geographic visualization: representing spatial inequality in Buffalo,New York 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
This paper is situated at the intersections among GIS and geovisualization, critical social theory, and urban studies. It presents an analysis of housing segregation and unequal food and transportation access in Buffalo, New York. We demonstrate how the representation and examination of this socially complex multi-scalar issue benefits from deliberate, reflexive conversation between different critical social-spatial epistemologies. We begin with a relatively simple GIS analysis of spatial segregation and arrive through critical iteration at a more qualitatively nuanced cartogram which moves beyond representations of fixed space to reveal a much more relational situation—a case of “time-space expansion” in which the travel time needed to meet a basic daily need is much greater for the poor and people of color than it is for whiter, more affluent populations. We conclude by infusing this narrative with additional considerations from social theory to show how even a limited visualization such as ours might better critically engage broader social and discursive processes in and across urban space. 相似文献
17.
On the vertical structure of tidal currents in a homogeneous sea 总被引：15，自引：0，他引：15
Summary. The vertical variation of tidal currents caused by friction at the sea-bed is investigated in both qualitative and quantitative ways with the Coriolis force being taken into account. The simple model with the assumption of constant eddy viscosity is employed to study the effects of friction on the vertical structure of tidal currents. The model explains these effects in vertical change of the maximum velocity, the ellipticity (the ratio of the minor to the major axis) of current ellipse, the time and the direction of the maximum velocity, and the ratio of diurnal current to semidiurnal current.
To reach a quantitative agreement with the data observed by Bowden & Fairbairn in the Irish Sea, the mixing length theory is applied to numerical calculation of the vertical distribution of tidal currents with a finite difference scheme. A fair agreement with the observations is obtained in the calculation. The results show the following features: (1) the vertical profile of amplitude of the main component for the current is almost logarithmic throughout the depth; (2) the corresponding profde for the shearing stress is almost linear with depth; (3) the maximum stress lags the maximum velocity with the delay increasing with elevation; (4) the eddy viscosity coefficient has its maximum around the mid-depth; and (5) the vertically averaged viscosity lags the velocity magnitude.
The dependence of the quadratic resistance coefficient and the coefficient k defined by Bowden's formula = k hū(h — depth, and ū — depth-averaged eddy viscosity and velocity) on the roughness length is given for a steady flow in a non-rotating system. The numerical solution shows that these relations can be approximately applied to the tidal currents in shallow waters. 相似文献
To reach a quantitative agreement with the data observed by Bowden & Fairbairn in the Irish Sea, the mixing length theory is applied to numerical calculation of the vertical distribution of tidal currents with a finite difference scheme. A fair agreement with the observations is obtained in the calculation. The results show the following features: (1) the vertical profile of amplitude of the main component for the current is almost logarithmic throughout the depth; (2) the corresponding profde for the shearing stress is almost linear with depth; (3) the maximum stress lags the maximum velocity with the delay increasing with elevation; (4) the eddy viscosity coefficient has its maximum around the mid-depth; and (5) the vertically averaged viscosity lags the velocity magnitude.
The dependence of the quadratic resistance coefficient and the coefficient k defined by Bowden's formula = k hū(h — depth, and ū — depth-averaged eddy viscosity and velocity) on the roughness length is given for a steady flow in a non-rotating system. The numerical solution shows that these relations can be approximately applied to the tidal currents in shallow waters. 相似文献
18.
长江中下游阻隔性河段作用机理 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
阻隔性河段能够阻隔上游河势调整向下游的传递,对稳定河势起到关键性作用。本文以长江中下游34个单一河段为研究对象,在系统总结长江中下游河道演变规律的基础上,归纳出阻隔性河段控制要素包括：单一微弯的河道平面形态、河段中上部无挑流节点;河相系数小于4;河道纵比降大于1.2?;凹岸黏粒含量高于9.5%;床沙中值粒径大于0.158 mm等。从Navier-Stokes方程出发,推导出河湾水流动力轴线弯曲半径的表达式,进而分析了各控制要素对水流动力轴线摆动及阻隔性河段形成的作用。阻隔性河段的判别条件为：不同流量级下水流动力轴线摆动力与河道边界条件约束力的比值始终小于1;阻隔性河段作用机理在于：即便上游河势发生调整,本河段的河道边界始终能约束主流摆动幅度,归顺上游不同河势条件下的主流平面位置,为下游河道提供了相对稳定的入流条件,从而阻隔上游河势调整向下游传递。 相似文献
19.
《Norsk geografisk tidsskrift. Norwegian journal of geography》2012,66(3-4):122-149
Glacier dammed lakes may have their outflow over a bedrock threshold like other lakes, or they may flow on the surface or below the damming ice. In the former case the lake, over some considerable period, has a constant maximum level with marked shore lines corresponding to the threshold. But when the level is determined by the ice dam, the conditions are unstable. The level of the lake will then to a certain extent vary in step with the glacier, and never remain at a certain level for any length of time. The normal behaviour of such a lake will be a moderately fast rise of the water level, dependent upon the supply, until a certain critical level is reached, whereupon drainage is rapid. Such is also to some extent the case with the type of lake first mentioned, if the height of the pass is situated near to the critical level for drainage. 相似文献
20.
Summary. We present polarization diagrams of the particle motions at the free surface of an isotropic half-space generated by incident shear waves from a local buried point source. The reflectivity technique is used to calculate synthetic seismograms from which the particle motions are plotted. The particle motions are examined over a range of epicentral distances in a uniform isotropic half-space for different source frequencies and polarization angles, and for different Poisson's ratios. The particle motions due to a curved wavefront possess different characteristics from those generated by plane wavefronts at corresponding incidence angles. A curved wavefront generates a local SP -phase: a P -headwave which propagates along the free surface, and arrives shortly before the direct S -wave. These two arrivals give rise to cruciform particle motions in the sagittal and horizontal planes, which could be misinterpreted as anisotropy-induced shear-wave splitting. An examination of the particle motion in the transverse plane, mutually orthogonal to the sagittal and horizontal planes, can be used to discriminate between isotropic and anisotropic interpretations. The amplitude of the SP -phase is enhanced when it propagates in a low-velocity surface layer overlying the source layer, and may then become the dominant phase on radial-component seismograms. The presence of even a single surface layer may introduce considerable complexity into the seismogram, and we examine the effects of layer thickness, velocity contrast, and source depth on the corresponding polarization diagrams. Reliable information on the source and propagation path characteristics of shear waves from a buried local point source can only be obtained from free-surface records if they are recorded within a very limited epicentral distance range. 相似文献