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1.
Water-flume experiments are conducted to study the structure of turbulent flow within and above a sparse model canopy consisting of two rigid canopies of different heights. This difference in height specifies a two-dimensional step change from a rough to a rougher surface, as opposed to a smooth-to-rough transition. Despite the fact that the flow is in transition from a rough to a rougher surface, the thickness of the internal boundary layer scales as x 4/5, consistent with smooth-to-rough boundary layer adjustment studies, where x is the downstream distance from the step change. However, the analogy with smooth-to-rough transitions no longer holds when the flow inside the canopy and near the canopy top is considered. Results show that the step change in surface roughness significantly increases turbulence intensities and shear stress. In particular, there is an adjustment of the mean horizontal velocity and shear stress as the flow passes over the rougher canopy, so that their vertical profiles adjust to give maximum values at the top of this canopy. We also observe that the magnitude and shape of the inflection in the mean horizontal velocity profile is significantly affected by the transition. The horizontal and vertical turbulence spectra compare well with Kolmogorov’s theory, although a small deviation at high frequencies is observed in the horizontal spectrum within the canopy. Here, for relatively low leaf area index, shear is found to be a more effective mechanism for momentum transfer through the canopy structure than vortex shedding.  相似文献   

2.
Turbulent flow over a very rough,random surface   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：1  
A knowledge of the nature of turbulent flow over very rough surfaces is important for an understanding of the environment of crops, forests, and cities. For this reason, a wind-tunnel investigation was carried out on the variations in mean velocity, Reynolds shear-stress, and other turbulence quantities in a deep turbulent flow over a rough surface having a fair degree of randomness in the shapes, sizes, and positions of its elements.There was a layer close to the surface with considerable variations in both mean velocity and shear-stress, and the horizontal scale over which the mean velocity varied was much larger than the average distance between roughness elements. Above this layer, whose depth was of the order of the spacing between roughness elements, shear stress was constant with height, and the velocity profile had a logarithmic form. The usefulness of both mean profile and eddy-correlation methods for estimating fluxes above very rough terrain is discussed in the light of these findings.  相似文献   

3.
An experiment was set-up to investigate the adjustment of turbulence over a roughness transition (moorland to forest). Results from this experiment support the development of an internal boundary layer (IBL) at the transition, which propagates upwards by turbulent diffusion as a function of distance downwind from the transition. Spectra and length-scale results uphold the hypothesis that, over a transition to a rough surface, the variance distribution shifts towards smaller wavelengths/length scales. However, results suggest that the adjustment of streamwise velocity variance may be faster than the adjustment of the vertical velocity variance. The concept of an equilibrium layer developing above the new surface is supported. Fetch requirements for equilibrium are, however, found to differ between first order and second order (flux) statistics, with second order statistics requiring a longer fetch. Results indicate that fetch should exceed 25 times the height of the measurement above the zero plane, which is a 2° (±0.5) growth angle, for flux equilibrium.  相似文献   

4.
Flow in the stable boundary layer is examined at four contrasting sites with greater upwind surface roughness. The surface heterogeneity is disorganized and in some cases weak as commonly occurs. With low wind speeds, the vertical divergence (or convergence) of the momentum and heat fluxes can be large near the surface in what is normally assumed to be the surface layer where such divergence is neglected. For the two most heterogeneous sites, a shallow “new” boundary layer is captured by the tower observations, analogous to an internal boundary layer but more complex. Above the new boundary layer, the magnitudes of the downward fluxes of heat and momentum increase with height in a transition layer, reach a maximum, and then decrease with height in an overlying regional boundary layer. Similar structure is observed at the site with rolling terrain where the shallow new boundary layer at the surface is identified as cold-air drainage generated by the local slope above which the flow undergoes transition to an overlying regional flow. Significant flux divergence near the surface is generated even over an ice floe for low wind speeds and in a shallow Ekman layer that forms during the polar night. For higher wind speeds, the magnitude of the downward fluxes decreases gradually with height at all levels as in a traditional boundary layer.  相似文献   

5.
Modification of a turbulent flow upstream of a change in surface roughness has been studied by means of a stream function-vorticity model.A flow reduction is found upstream of a step change in surface roughness when a fluid flows from a smooth onto a rough surface. Above that layer and above the region of flow reduction downstream of a smooth-rough transition, a flow acceleration is observed. Similar flow modification can be seen at a rough-smooth transition with the exception that flow reduction and flow acceleration are reversed. Within a fetch of –500 < x/z 0< + 500 (z 0 is the maximum roughness length, the roughness transition is located at x/z 0 = 0), flow reduction (flow acceleration) upstream of a roughness transition is one order of magnitude smaller than the flow reduction (flow acceleration) downstream of a smooth-rough (rough-smooth) transition. The flow acceleration (flow reduction) above that layer is two orders of magnitude.The internal boundary layer (IBL) for horizontal mean velocity extends to roughly 300z 0 upstream of a roughness transition, whereas the IBL for turbulent shear stress as well as the distortion of flow equilibrium extend almost twice as far. For the friction velocity, an undershooting (overshooting) with respect to upstream equilibrium is predicted which precedes overshooting (undershooting) over new equilibrium just behind a roughness transition.The flow modification over a finite fetch of modified roughness is weaker than over a corresponding fetch downstream of a single step change in roughness and the flow stays closer to upstream equilibrium. Even in front of the first roughness change of a finite fetch of modified roughness, a distortion of flow equilibrium due to the second, downwind roughness change can be observed.  相似文献   

6.
The Budget of Turbulent Kinetic Energy in the Urban Roughness Sublayer   总被引：4，自引：4，他引：0  
Full-scale observations from two urban sites in Basel, Switzerland were analysed to identify the magnitude of different processes that create, relocate, and dissipate turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in the urban atmosphere. Two towers equipped with a profile of six ultrasonic anemometers each sampled the flow in the urban roughness sublayer, i.e. from street canyon base up to roughly 2.5 times the mean building height. This observational study suggests a conceptual division of the urban roughness sublayer into three layers: (1) the layer above the highest roofs, where local buoyancy production and local shear production of TKE are counterbalanced by local viscous dissipation rate and scaled turbulence statistics are close to to surface-layer values; (2) the layer around mean building height with a distinct inflexional mean wind profile, a strong shear and wake production of TKE, a more efficient turbulent exchange of momentum, and a notable export of TKE by transport processes; (3) the lower street canyon with imported TKE by transport processes and negligible local production. Averaged integral velocity variances vary significantly with height in the urban roughness sublayer and reflect the driving processes that create or relocate TKE at a particular height. The observed profiles of the terms of the TKE budget and the velocity variances show many similarities to observations within and above vegetation canopies.  相似文献   

7.
Wind profiles,momentum fluxes and roughness lengths at Cabauw revisited   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：1  
We describe the results of an experiment focusing on wind speed and momentum fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer up to 200 m. The measurements were conducted in 1996 at the Cabauw site in the Netherlands. Momentum fluxes are measured using the K-Gill Propeller Vane. Estimates of the roughness length are derived using various techniques from the wind speed and flux measurements, and the observed differences are explained by considering the source area of the meteorological parameters. A clear rough-to-smooth transition is found in the wind speed profiles at Cabauw. The internal boundary layer reaches the lowest k-vane (20 m) only in the south-west direction where the obstacle-free fetch is about 2 km. The internal boundary layer is also reflected in the roughness lengths derived from the wind speed profiles. The lower part of the profile (< 40 m) is not in equilibrium and no reliable roughness analysis can be given. The upper part of the profile can be linked to a large-scale roughness length. Roughness lengths derived from the horizontal wind speed variance and gustiness have large footprints and therefore represent a large-scale average roughness. The drag coefficient is more locally determined but still represents a large-scale roughness length when it is measured above the local internal boundary layer. The roughness length at inhomogeneous sites can therefore be determined best from drag coefficient measurements just above the local internal boundary layers directly, or indirectly from horizontal wind speed variance or gustiness. In addition, the momentum and heat fluxes along the tower are analysed and these show significant variation with height related to stability and possibly surface heterogeneity. It appears that the dimensionless wind speed gradients scale well with local fluxes for the variety of conditions considered, including the unstable cases.  相似文献   

8.
Simultaneous particle-image velocimetry and laser-induced fluorescence combined with large-eddy simulations are used to investigate the flow and pollutant dispersion behaviour in a rural-to-urban roughness transition. The urban roughness is characterized by an array of cubical obstacles in an aligned arrangement. A plane fence is added one obstacle height h upstream of the urban roughness elements, with three different fence heights considered. A smooth-wall turbulent boundary layer with a depth of 10h is used as the approaching flow, and a passive tracer is released from a uniform line source 1h upstream of the fence. A shear layer is formed at the top of the fence, which increases in strength for the higher fence cases, resulting in a deeper internal boundary layer (IBL). It is found that the mean flow for the rural-to-urban transition can be described by means of a mixing-length model provided that the transitional effects are accounted for. The mixing-length formulation for sparse urban canopies, as found in the literature, is extended to take into account the blockage effect in dense canopies. Additionally, the average mean concentration field is found to scale with the IBL depth and the bulk velocity in the IBL.  相似文献   

9.
The representation of a neutral atmospheric flow over roughness elements simulating a vegetation canopy is compared between two large-eddy simulation models, wind-tunnel data and recently updated empirical flux-gradient relationships. Special attention is devoted to the dynamics in the roughness sublayer above the canopy layer, where turbulence is most intense. By demonstrating that the flow properties are consistent across these different approaches, confidence in the individual independent representations is bolstered. Systematic sensitivity analyses with the Dutch Atmospheric Large-Eddy Simulation model show that the transition in the one-sided plant-area density from the canopy layer to unobstructed air potentially alters the flow in the canopy and roughness sublayer. Anomalously induced fluctuations can be fully suppressed by spreading the transition over four steps. Finer vertical resolutions only serve to reduce the magnitude of these fluctuations, but do not prevent them. To capture the general dynamics of the flow, a resolution of 10 % of the canopy height is found to suffice, while a finer resolution still improves the representation of the turbulent kinetic energy. Finally, quadrant analyses indicate that momentum transport is dominated by the mean velocity components within each quadrant. Consequently, a mass-flux approach can be applied to represent the momentum flux.  相似文献   

10.
Flow in the urban boundary layer is strongly influenced by the surface roughness, which is composed principally of isolated buildings or groups of buildings. Previous research has shown that the flow regime depends on the characteristic height of these obstacles (H), and the spacing between them (W). In reality, the urban boundary layer contains roughness elements with a wide range of length scales; in many practical situations these can be classified into large-scale roughness—buildings, or groups of buildings—and small-scale roughness, such as street furniture and elements on the façades and roofs. It is important to understand how the small-scale roughness might modify mass and momentum transfer in the urban boundary layer, but relatively little information is available concerning the potential interaction between large- and small-scale roughness elements in the different flow regimes. This problem has been studied using wind-tunnel experiments, by measuring vertical velocity profiles over a two-dimensional obstacle array, adding small-scale roughness elements to the top of larger parallel square bars. The experiments were performed for different cavity aspect ratios: the results show that the small-scale roughness increases the turbulence intensities and the momentum transfer when the large-scale obstacles are closely packed (H/W > 1) but it has very little effect for more widely-spaced obstacles (H/W < 1).  相似文献   

11.
In this study, a detailed model of an urban landscape has been re-constructed inthe wind tunnel and the flow structure inside and above the urban canopy has beeninvestigated. Vertical profiles of all three velocity components have been measuredwith a Laser-Doppler velocimeter, and an extensive analysis of the measured meanflow and turbulence profiles carried out. With respect to the flow structure inside thecanopy, two types of velocity profiles can be distinguished. Within street canyons,the mean wind velocities are almost zero or negative below roof level, while closeto intersections or open squares, significantly higher mean velocities are observed.In the latter case, the turbulent velocities inside the canopy also tend to be higherthan at street-canyon locations. For both types, turbulence kinetic energy and shearstress profiles show pronounced maxima in the flow region immediately above rooflevel.Based on the experimental data, a shear-stress parameterization is proposed, inwhich the velocity scale, us, and length scale, zs, are based on the level and magnitude of the shear stress peak value. In order to account for a flow region inside the canopy with negligible momentum transport, a shear stress displacement height, ds, is introduced. The proposed scaling and parameterization perform well for the measured profiles and shear-stress data published in the literature.The length scales derived from the shear-stress parameterization also allowdetermination of appropriate scales for the mean wind profile. The roughnesslength, z0, and displacement height, d0, can both be described as fractions of the distance, zs - ds, between the level of the shear-stress peak and the shear-stress displacement height. This result can be interpreted in such a way that the flow only feels the zone of depth zs - ds as the roughness layer. With respect to the lower part of the canopy (z < ds) the flow behaves as a skimming flow. Correlations between the length scales zs and ds and morphometric parameters are discussed.The mean wind profiles above the urban structure follow a logarithmic windlaw. A combination of morphometric estimation methods for d0 and z0 with wind velocity measurements at a reference height, which allow calculation of the shear-stress velocity, u*, appears to be the most reliable and easiest procedure to determine mean wind profile parameters. Inside the roughnesssublayer, a local scaling approach results in good agreement between measuredand predicted mean wind profiles.  相似文献   

12.
The mean flow profile within and above a tall canopy is well known to violate the standard boundary-layer flux–gradient relationships. Here we present a theory for the flow profile that is comprised of a canopy model coupled to a modified surface-layer model. The coupling between the two components and the modifications to the surface-layer profiles are formulated through the mixing layer analogy for the flow at a canopy top. This analogy provides an additional length scale—the vorticity thickness—upon which the flow just above the canopy, within the so-called roughness sublayer, depends. A natural form for the vertical profiles within the roughness sublayer follows that overcomes problems with many earlier forms in the literature. Predictions of the mean flow profiles are shown to match observations over a range of canopy types and stabilities. The unified theory predicts that key parameters, such as the displacement height and roughness length, have a significant dependence on the boundary-layer stability. Assuming one of these parameters a priori leads to the incorrect variation with stability of the others and incorrect predictions of the mean wind speed profile. The roughness sublayer has a greater impact on the mean wind speed in stable than unstable conditions. The presence of a roughness sublayer also allows the surface to exert a greater drag on the boundary layer for an equivalent value of the near-surface wind speed than would otherwise occur. This characteristic would alter predictions of the evolution of the boundary layer and surface states if included within numerical weather prediction models.  相似文献   

13.
Turbulence data from experiments conducted over a staggered cube array, modelling a neutrally stable atmospheric boundary layer in an urban environment, are presented. The results support the contention that organised eddy structures in the near-wall region differ significantly from those in regular smooth-wall flows or in rough-wall boundary layers with much smaller h/δ ratios (where δ and h are the boundary-layer thickness and the height of the roughness elements, respectively). Attention is concentrated on spatial correlations, spectra (and thus the dominant length and time scales), maps of anisotropy invariants and quadrant analyses of the stress tensor. Results are obtained within both the roughness sublayer (i.e. the region above the roughness but within which the flow is spatially inhomogeneous) and the canopy region (i.e. below the height of the roughness elements) and discussion includes consideration of the turbulence kinetic energy balance at various heights.  相似文献   

14.
The structure of turbulent flows along a transition between tall-forested canopies and forest clearings continues to be an active research topic in canopy turbulence. The difficulties in describing the turbulent flow along these transitions stem from the fact that the vertical structure of the canopy and its leaf area distribution cannot be ignored or represented by an effective roughness length. Large-eddy simulation (LES) runs were performed to explore the effect of a homogeneous variation in the forest leaf area index (LAI) on the turbulent flow across forest edges. A nested grid numerical method was used to ensure the development of a deep boundary layer above the forest while maintaining a sufficiently high resolution in the region close to the ground. It was demonstrated that the LES here predicted first-order and second-order mean velocity statistics within the canopy that agree with reported Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) model results, field and laboratory experiments. In the simulations reported here, the LAI was varied between 2 and 8 spanning a broad range of observed LAI in terrestrial ecosystems. By increasing the forest LAI, the mean flow properties both within the forest and in the clearing near the forest edge were altered in two fundamental ways: near the forest edge and into the clearing, the flow statistical properties resembled the so-called back-facing step (BFS) flow with a mean recirculation zone near the edge. Another recirculation zone sets up downstream of the clearing as the flow enters the tall forest canopy. The genesis of this within-forest recirculation zone can be primarily described using the interplay between the mean pressure gradients (forcing the flow) and the drag force (opposing the flow). Using the LES results, a simplified analytical model was also proposed to explain the location of the recirculation zone inside the canopy and its dependence on the forest LAI. Furthermore, a simplified scaling argument that decomposes the mean velocity at the outflow edge into a superposition of ‘exit flow’ and BFS-like flow with their relative importance determined by LAI was explored.  相似文献   

15.
It is widely accepted that the correct formulation of an effective roughness length, defined as the area average of the roughness length in heterogeneous terrain, relies upon the appropriate de-termination of a height scale. At this height a meteorological quantity is approximately in equilibrium with local surface conditions and independent of horizontal position. This research note determines explicitly the different height scales from the perturbation solutions of flow velocity and temperature, as well as the fluxes of momentum and heat, in a stratified boundary layer. These solutions are derived from the asymptotic approximation theory and shown to capture major characteristics of momentum and heat transfer over heterogeneous terrain with changes of the underlying roughness lengths. The effective roughness lengths can then be computed by use of these height scales. The dependence of height scales and effective roughness lengths upon stratification is also discussed briefly.  相似文献   

16.
The statistics of turbulent flow across a forest edge have been examined using large-eddy simulation, and results compared with field and wind-tunnel observations. The moorland-to-forest transition is characterized by flow deceleration in the streamwise direction, upward distortion of the mean flow, formation of a high pressure zone immediately in front of the edge, suppression of the standard deviations and covariance of velocity components, and enhancement of velocity skewnesses. For the selected forest density, it is observed that the maximum distortion angle is about 8 degrees from the horizontal. Instead of approaching a downwind equilibrium state in a monotonic manner, turbulence (standard deviations and covariances of velocity components) and mean streamwise velocity undershoot in the transition zone behind the edge. Evolution of flow statistics clearly reveals the growth of an internal boundary layer, and the establishment of an equilibrium layer downwind of the edge. It is evident that lower-order moments generally adjust more quickly over the new rough surface than do higher-order moments. We also show that the streamwise velocity standard deviation at canopy height starts its recovery over the rough surface sooner than does the vertical velocity standard deviation, but completes full adjustment later than the latter. Despite the limited domain size upstream of the edge, large-eddy simulation has successfully reproduced turbulent statistics in good agreement with field and wind-tunnel measurements.  相似文献   

17.
A numerical model is developed for two-dimensional turbulent boundary-layer flow above gentle topography — defined as not giving rise to mean flow separation. Although the model is formulated in a framework of mixing length and turbulent energy equation models for the surface layer of the atmospheric boundary layer, it could be modified to include higher-order closure hypotheses and/or extended to model gentle topography for the planetary boundary layer or on the sea bed. Results are presented for flow above a specific shape of hill and the effects of surface roughness and hill height are investigated.  相似文献   

18.
Data from low-level soundings over Cambridge, U.S.A. were selected on the basis of an Ekman-like variation of the wind vector with altitude combined with evidence of a barotropic atmosphere. The method of geostrophic departure was used to determine the shear-stress distribution. The analysis yields the dimensionless properties of the barotropic Ekman layer under neutral and stable stratification. Some important results include: the geostrophic drag coefficient displays no dependence on the degree of static stability; the dimensionless height of the boundary layer decreases with increasing stability in agreement with the prediction of Zilitinkevich; the properties of the urban surface layer, where the roughness elements are multistory buildings, show no dependence on atmospheric stability under the moderate wind conditions which display the Ekman-like wind profile; and the directions of the horizontal shear stress and the vertical derivative of the velocity vector usually tend to be parallel only near the surface layer. Values of the two constants of the Rossby number similarity theory are found for the neutral barotropic Ekman layer at a surface Rossby number equal to 2 × 105. The implications of the work with respect to wind-tunnel simulation of the flow over models of urban areas are discussed.  相似文献   

19.
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) data obtained in a wind-tunnel model of a canopy boundary layer is used to examine the characteristics of mean flow and turbulence. The vector spacing varies between 1.7 and 2.5 times the Kolmogorov scales. Conditional sampling based on quadrants, i.e. based on the signs of velocity fluctuations, reveals fundamental differences in flow structure, especially between sweep and ejection events, which dominate the flow. During sweeps, the downward flow generates a narrow, highly turbulent, shear layer containing multiple small-scale vortices just below canopy height. During ejections, the upward flow expands this shear layer and the associated small-scale flow structures to a broad region located above the canopy. Consequently, during sweeps the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), Reynolds stresses, as well as production and dissipation rates, have distinct narrow peaks just below canopy height, whereas during ejections these variables have broad maxima well above the canopy. Three methods to estimate the dissipation rate are compared, including spectral fits, measured subgrid-scale (SGS) energy fluxes at different scales, and direct measurements of slightly underresolved instantaneous velocity gradients. The SGS energy flux is 40–60% of the gradient-based (direct) estimates for filter sizes inside the inertial range, while decreasing with scale, as expected, within the dissipation range. The spectral fits are within 5–30% of the direct estimates. The spectral fits exceed the direct estimates near canopy height, but are lower well above and below canopy height. The dissipation rate below canopy height increases with velocity magnitude, i.e. it has the highest values during sweep and quadrant 1 events, and is significantly lower during ejection and quadrant 3 events. Well above the canopy, ejections are the most dissipative. Turbulent transport during sweep events acts as a source below the narrow shear layer within the canopy and as a sink above it. Transport during ejection events is a source only well above the canopy. The residual term in the TKE transport equation, representing mostly the effect of pressure–velocity correlations, is substantial only within the canopy, and is dominated by sweeps.  相似文献   

20.
The notion of an internal boundary layer (IBL) appeared in studies of local advection within the atmospheric boundary layer when air flows over a change in surface conditions. These include surface roughness, thermal and moisture properties. An ability to predict the height of the IBL interface in the atmosphere under neutral stability, accompanied by certain assumptions on the form of the mean flow parameters, have been a means of obtaining information on the velocity profile after step changes in roughness for more than half a century. A compendium of IBL formulae is presented. The approach based on the diffusion analogy of Miyake receives close attention. The empirical expression of Savelyev and Taylor (2001, Boundary Layer Meteorol. 101, 293–301) suggested that turbulent diffusion is not the only factor that influences IBL growth. An argument is offered that an additional element, mean vertical velocity or streamline displacement, should be taken into account. Vertical velocity is parameterized in terms of horizontal velocity differences employing continuity constraints and scaling. Published data are analyzed from a new point of view, which produces two new neutral stratification formulae. The first implies that the roughness lengths of adjacent surfaces are equally important and a combined length scale can be constructed. In addition new formulae to predict the height of the region of diabatic flow affected by a step change in surface conditions are obtained as an extension of the neutral flow case.  相似文献   

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