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1.
We explore the hypothesis that the abrupt drainage of Laurentide lakes and associated rapid switch of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation 8200 yr ago had a catastrophic influence on Neolithic civilisation in large parts of southeastern Europe, Anatolia, Cyprus, and the Near East. The event at 8200 cal yr BP is observed in a large number of high-resolution climate proxies in the Northern Hemisphere, and in many cases corresponds to markedly cold and arid conditions. We identify the relevant archaeological levels of major Neolithic settlements in Central Anatolia, Cyprus, Greece and Bulgaria, and examine published stratigraphic, architectural, cultural and geoarchaeological studies for these sites. The specific archaeological events and processes we observe at a number of these sites during the study interval 8400–8000 cal yr BP lead us to refine some previously established Neolithisation models. The introduction of farming to South-East Europe occurs in all study regions (Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Bulgaria) near 8200 cal yr BP. We observe major disruptions of Neolithic cultures in the Levant, North Syria, South-East Anatolia, Central Anatolia and Cyprus, at the same time. We conclude that the 8200 cal yr BP aridity event triggered the spread of early farmers, by different routes, out of West Asia and the Near East into Greece and Bulgaria.  相似文献   

2.
Serena Love 《Geoarchaeology》2012,27(2):140-156
This article provides a methodology for extracting social information through an analysis of mudbrick compositions, using a case study from Çatalhöyük, Turkey. Particle size analysis, loss on ignition, and magnetic susceptibility were used to examine variability in mudbrick recipe. The analysis revealed that neither magnetic susceptibility nor calcium carbonate were significantly altered through tempering. The results suggest that the greatest degree of compositional variability was a result of the manufacture process and not raw materials used in production. Mudbricks are products of deliberate human actions, similar to any other artifact assemblage, but have been long overlooked. Examining the technology involved with mudbrick manufacture highlights aspects of Neolithic social life through shared resources, production choices, and organization of labor. The analysis of mudbrick compositions considers how raw materials were used within and between groups of houses, represented in 1000 years of uninterrupted occupation at Çatalhöyük.  相似文献   

3.
Ancient evaporite deposits are geological archives of depositional environments characterized by a long‐term negative precipitation balance and bear evidence for global ocean element mass balance calculations. Here, Cretaceous selenite pseudomorphs from western Anatolia (‘Rosetta Marble’) — characterized by their exceptional morphological preservation — and their ‘marine’ geochemical signatures are described and interpreted in a process‐oriented context. These rocks recorded Late Cretaceous high‐pressure/low‐temperature, subduction‐related metamorphism with peak conditions of 1·0 to 1·2 GPa and 300 to 400°C. Metre‐scale, rock‐forming radiating rods, now present as fibrous calcite marble, clearly point to selenitic gypsum as the precursor mineral. Stratigraphic successions are recorded along a reconstructed proximal to distal transect. The cyclical alternation of selenite beds and radiolarian ribbon‐bedded cherts in the distal portions are interpreted as a two type of seawater system. During arid intervals, shallow marine brines cascaded downward into basinal settings and induced precipitation. During more humid times, upwelling‐induced radiolarian blooms caused the deposition of radiolarite facies. Interestingly, there is no comparable depositional setting known from the Cenozoic world. Meta‐selenite geochemical data (δ13C, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr) plot within the range of reconstructed middle Cretaceous seawater signatures. Possible sources for the 13C‐enriched (mean 2·2‰) values include methanogenesis, gas hydrates and cold seep fluid exhalation. Spatially resolved component‐specific analysis of a rock slab displays isotopic variances between meta‐selenite crystals (mean δ13C 2·2‰) and host matrix (mean δ13C 1·3‰). The Cretaceous evaporite‐pseudomorphs of Anatolia represent a basin wide event coeval with the Aptian evaporites of the Proto‐Atlantic and the pseudomorphs share many attributes, including lateral distribution of 600 km and stratigraphic thickness of 1·5 to 2·0 km, with the evaporites formed during the younger Messinian salinity crisis. The Rosetta Marble of Anatolia may represent the best‐preserved selenite pseudomorphs worldwide and have a clear potential to act as a template for the study of meta‐selenite in deep time.  相似文献   

4.
This article demonstrates the application of multiple reconnaissance methods as an efficient means of localizing desired data sets (e.g., artifact concentrations and architectural features) in stratigraphically complex sites. Excavations at Blagotin, Serbia, are presented as an example. Blagotin is a multioccupation site with vertically superimposed and laterally displaced cultural deposits. The application of a battery of survey techniques and the integration of the results enabled the author to define periods of occupation (Early Neolithic, Eneolithic, Early Iron Age), distinguish temporal variations, and predict the nature and distribution of subsurface archaeological remains. Ultimately, the Early Neolithic occupation is shown to consist of a small settlement with a large central pit‐house surrounded by a ring of smaller pit houses. This interpretation of the intra‐settlement spatial organization, made possible through the application of a multiple survey technique, differs from those previously offered for these types of sites. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  相似文献   

5.
S?cak Çermik (Sivas) is an important geothermal and recent travertine formation area in Central Anatolia. The majority of travertines found in the region comprise fissure-ridge type travertines according to morphological classification. At the location called Tepe Çermik within the travertine area, fill containing fossil bone fragments of Equus sp., Bovidae and other abundant animals formed within the fracture axis of a N–S striking fissure-ridge travertine developed under control of tectonic forces. The finds of these fossils in fissure-ridge travertines linked to tectonic forces indicates formation of a unique fossil environment created under the control of these forces. The Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Radiocarbon Dating analyses of fossils from the study area determined the fills were older than 43,000 years. The U/Th age of a sample from the most recently-formed banded travertine in the axis of the fracture was identified as 278,540 ± 18,436 years. As a result, the ages of fossils found within this fill are thought to be between 43,000 and 278,540 ± 18,436 years old. The high amount of perissodactyla and artiodactyla fossils found within fill in the axis of the fissure-ridge travertine probably indicates the presence of hominids who chose the region for hunting or settlement. The Equus sp. and Bovidae fossil samples found in the axis of the fracture indicate that in the dry and cold glacial period the paleogeography in a large portion of Anatolia comprised desert-like steppe.  相似文献   

6.
Archaeological surface surveys have located open‐air sites on cropland in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). To what degree agricultural disturbances have impacted archaeological site integrity is poorly defined and may greatly affect interpretations of prehistoric land use. This paper presents the results of three experiments concerned with the effects of tillage on artifact distribution, focusing specifically on lateral and vertical artifact displacement. We demonstrate highly variable horizontal displacement of artifacts by plowing and overall downward movement of lithic materials within the soil. This results in an expansion of site boundaries and reduction of surface artifact density, yielding a biased and unrepresentative picture of past human activity. More experimental studies are needed to better define agricultural disturbances to surface archaeological assemblages. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

7.
Although Aboriginal occupation dates to the Pleistocene, silcrete artifacts only begin to dominate archaeological sites found in the Cumberland Plain of western Sydney, eastern Australia, during the mid‐late Holocene. These assemblages routinely include large numbers of backed artifacts. A geoarchaeological survey of five potential silcrete source areas found that silcrete is irregularly distributed along ridgelines within gravel patches that represent paleochannel remnants. Thus, particular parts of the landscape, dictated by the geological history, were more likely to be targeted for stone procurement. The quality of silcrete differs between and within the sources due to variations in grain‐size, degree of silicification, and presence of inclusions/fractures, as well as the destructive influence of bush fires on exposed cobbles, resulting in an overall low abundance of high‐quality silcrete across the Cumberland Plain. Furthermore, a rind or chalky weathering cortex on many cobbles means that testing was required to assess the internal raw material quality. The difficulty in locating suitable raw material for artifact manufacture meant that when good silcrete sources were found, they were heavily targeted. This contextual information provides an essential backdrop in which to understand the archaeology of the Cumberland Plain and broader patterns of landscape use.  相似文献   

8.
Anatolia has long been a major pottery production center of the ancient world, dating back 7000 cal yr B.P. The Early Iron Age Urartu Kingdom (800–600 B.C.) of eastern Anatolia is known for the production of high‐quality pottery, but little is known regarding firing technology and manufacture of these ceramics. Here we present a preliminary study of Urartu ceramic micromorphology and chemistry and suggest that the Urartus had good knowledge of local geology and intentionally used chemical fluxes (Pb, Rb, and Li) to attain desired firing temperatures. The sophisticated production of Urartu ceramics is comparable to later high‐quality Roman pottery (terra sigillata) procured from the same area. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

9.
Simultaneous thin section and phytolith observations of finely stratified anthropogenic deposits from the Neolithic settlement of Çatalhöyük, Turkey, dated between 7400 and 6000 BC provide evidence for both the depositional context and phytolith assemblage of these deposits. Although extracted phytoliths provide a general picture of vegetation that supports existing evidence of a local wet marshland environment, comparisons with observations of phytoliths in situ indicate a diverse range of microcontexts, as well as depositional and post‐depositional processes that influence phytolith size. This has implications for studies that use conjoined phytolith size as a proxy for water availability and early agricultural practices. Observations indicate a significant background noise of phytoliths and micro‐charcoal in the deposits, linked to the frequent use of fire, which has implications for interpreting assemblages where phytolith counts are low, such as from floors of buildings. This study confirms the usefulness of phytoliths in providing information on human plant use and environment where the taphonomy of the deposits is clear, and provides new evidence for wet farming of at least some of the wheat found at the site. It also suggests there needs to be greater consideration of phytolith taphonomy, which can be provided to an extent by combining phytolith analysis with thin section micromorphology. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

10.
The multiple high‐pressure (HP), low‐temperature (LT) metamorphic units of Western and Central Anatolia offer a great opportunity to investigate the subduction‐ and continental accretion‐related evolution of the eastern limb of the long‐lived Aegean subduction system. Recent reports of the HP–LT index mineral Fe‐Mg‐carpholite in three metasedimentary units of the Gondwana‐derived Anatolide–Tauride continental block (namely the Afyon Zone, the Ören Unit and the southern Menderes Massif) suggest a more complicated scenario than the single‐continental accretion model generally put forward in previous studies. This study presents the first isotopic dates (white mica 40Ar–39Ar geochronology), and where possible are combined with P–T estimates (chlorite thermometry, phengite barometry, multi‐equilibrium thermobarometry), on carpholite‐bearing rocks from these three HP–LT metasedimentary units. It is shown that, in the Afyon Zone, carpholite‐bearing assemblages were retrogressed through greenschist‐facies conditions at c. 67–62 Ma. Early retrograde stages in the Ören Unit are dated to 63–59 Ma. In the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit (HP Mesozoic cover of the southern Menderes Massif), HP retrograde stages are dated to c. 45 Ma, and post‐collisional cooling to c. 26 Ma. These new results support that the Ören Unit represents the westernmost continuation of the Afyon Zone, whereas the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit correlates with the Cycladic Blueschist Unit of the Aegean Domain. In Western Anatolia, three successive HP–LT metamorphic belts thus formed: the northernmost Tav?anl? Zone (c. 88–82 Ma), the Ören–Afyon Zone (between 70 and 65 Ma), and the Kurudere–Nebiler Unit (c. 52–45 Ma). The southward younging trend of the HP–LT metamorphism from the upper and internal to the deeper and more external structural units, as in the Aegean Domain, points to the persistence of subduction in Western Anatolia between 93–90 and c. 35 Ma. After the accretion of the Menderes–Tauride terrane, in Eocene times, subduction stopped, leading to continental collision and associated Barrovian‐type metamorphism. Because, by contrast, the Aegean subduction did remain active due to slab roll‐back and trench migration, the eastern limb (below Southwestern Anatolia) of the Hellenic slab was dramatically curved and consequently teared. It therefore is suggested that the possibility for subduction to continue after the accretion of buoyant (e.g. continental) terranes probably depends much on palaeogeography.  相似文献   

11.
The creation of anthropic sediments, traditionally referred to under the blanket term midden, through the utilization of settlement waste materials in domestic settlement construction was first recognized during early excavations at the Orcadian Neolithic site of Skara Brae (V.G. Childe, 1931a; 1931b). Prior to the present study there has been no systematic attempt to identify the nature of these sediments at Skara Brae, whose likely occupation dates between ˜3100 and 2500 B.C., or to assess whether different materials were incorporated into construction or varied with different phases of site formation. The opportunity to begin addressing these issues arose with the location of undisturbed sediment samples held in storage since the last site excavations of 1972–1973 (D.V. Clarke, 1976). Ten thin sections were manufactured from these samples, representing earlier and later phases of Neolithic settlement at Skara Brae. Observations using thin‐section micromorphology, supported by total phosphorus and particle‐size distribution analyses, suggest that both earlier and later settlement phases show accumulation of household waste dominated by fuel residues. These wastes may have been used to help stabilize wind‐blown sand deposits during the later settlement phases. In addition, the use of clay material tempered with household waste is associated with wall construction. Animal manures are only evident in anthropic deposits on the edge of the main settlement site where composting may have been taking place, and there is no evidence for their use in site construction. The authors conclude by drawing attention to possible diverse uses of anthropic sediments in settlement construction at other Neolithic settlements in Orkney. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

12.
Characterizing raw material of stone tools used by Late Neolithic and Copper Age communities is important for interpreting access to available sources and establishing regional routes of distribution. Ichnological analysis may be used to help characterize lithic material and determine the source of artifacts. Here we report for the first time the existence of trace fossils in artifacts from the Late Neolithic and Copper Age of southern Spain. Ichnological analysis indicates a trace fossil assemblage consisting of relatively scarce small‐sized Chondrites and abundant Phycosiphon. A regional survey of natural outcrops and chert quarries indicates the presence of discrete trace fossils only in the samples from geological formations that are part of the Campo de Gibraltar Complex. Ichnological composition in these samples is similar to that discerned in the artifacts and suggests that this was the probable source of the chert used in tool manufacture. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

13.
In this paper, we describe Neolithic/Aeneolithic implements made from high‐pressure metabasites: jadeites and eclogites. As such rocks are unknown in the Western Carpathians mountain system, we presume distant source areas for the described raw material types. We present the morphology, cultural association, and the results of petrographic research (microprobe analyses of rock‐forming minerals) on implements made from these raw materials found at two sites in the Slovak Republic. We propose that the raw materials of these implements crop out hundreds of kilometers from the sites on which they were discovered. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

14.
Although ophiolitic rocks are abundant in Anatolia (Turkey), only in rare cases have they experienced high‐grade metamorphism. Even more uncommon, in Anatolia and elsewhere are high‐grade meta‐ophiolites that retain an oceanic lithosphere stratigraphy from upper crustal mafic volcanic rocks through lower crustal gabbro to mantle peridotite. The Berit meta‐ophiolite of SE Turkey exhibits both features: from structurally higher to lower levels, it consists of garnet amphibolite (metabasalt), granulite facies metagabbro (as lenses in amphibolite inferred to be retrogressed granulite) and metaperidotite (locally with metapyroxenite layers). Whole‐rock major and trace‐element data indicate a tholeiitic protolith that formed in a suprasubduction setting. This paper presents new results for the metamorphic P–T conditions and path of oceanic lower crustal rocks in the Berit meta‐ophiolite, and an evaluation of the tectonic processes that may drive granulite facies metamorphism of ophiolite gabbro. In the Do?an?ehir (Malatya, Turkey) region, granulite facies gabbroic rocks contain garnet (Grt)+clinopyroxene (Cpx)+plagioclase (Pl)+corundum (Crn)±orthopyroxene (Opx)±kyanite (Ky)±sapphirine (Spr)±rutile. Some exhibit symplectites consisting of Crn+Cpx, Ky+Cpx and/or coronas of garnet (outer shell) around a polygonal aggregate of clinopyroxene that in some cases surrounds a polygonal aggregate of orthopyroxene. Coronitic and non‐coronitic textures occur in proximity in mm‐ to cm‐scale layers; corona structures typically occur in plagioclase‐rich layers. Their formation is therefore related primarily to protolith type (troctolite v. gabbro) rather than P–T path. Phase diagrams calculated for a kyanite‐rich granulite, a plagioclase‐rich non‐coronitic granulite, and a plagioclase‐rich coronitic granulite (taking into account changes in effective bulk composition during texture development) predict peak conditions of ~800°C, 1.1–1.5 GPa; these conditions do not require invoking an unusually high geothermal gradient. In the coronitic metagabbro, reaction textures formed along the prograde path: Crn–Cpx symplectites grew at the expense of garnet, sapphirine and plagioclase. Peak conditions were followed by isobaric cooling of ~150°C. Hornblende–plagioclase thermometry results for host amphibolite (Hbl+Pl±Crn±Grt±relict Cpx) indicate retrograde conditions of 620–675°C and 0.5–0.8 GPa accompanied by infiltration of H2O‐rich fluid. This anticlockwise P–T path differs from an isothermal decompression path previously proposed for these rocks based on the presence of symplectite. Metamorphism of the ophiolitic rocks was driven by closing of the southern Neotethys Ocean, as oceanic lithosphere was obducted (most SE Anatolian ophiolites) or underthrust (Berit meta‐ophiolite). This was followed by subduction of a continental margin, driving cooling of the Berit granulite after the thermal peak at depths of ~40 km.  相似文献   

15.
A large number of pitchstone fragments and artefacts have recently been discovered at a Neolithic settlement site in Ballygalley, Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland. They consist predominantly of flakes and un‐reworked lumps and cores, with only one complete tool being found. Since no sources of workable pitchstone exist in Ireland, the source must have been the abundant pitchstone volcanic rocks found on the Hebridean Islands of northwest Scotland. The composition of the glass from a number of artefacts is highly siliceous, indicating that they were derived from pitchstones on the Island of Arran; pitchstones from all other Scottish locations are less silica‐rich. In addition, analysis of pyroxene and amphibole microcrystallites within the pitchstone suggests that the Corriegills area of Arran is the most likely source of the Ballygalley artefacts, although the precise outcrop has proved elusive. These finds, and others across Ireland, show that raw materials were being transported and probably traded over considerable distances despite there being suitable alternative sources of material for making tools (flint, etc.) available in the local area. This suggests that the pitchstone had a very specialist use. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

16.
Post‐collisional granitoid plutons intrude obducted Neo‐Tethyan ophiolitic rocks in central and eastern Central Anatolia. The Bizmişen and Çaltı plutons and the ophiolitic rocks that they intrude are overlain by fossiliferous and flyschoidal sedimentary rocks of the early Miocene Kemah Formation. These sedimentary rocks were deposited in basins that developed at the same time as tectonic unroofing of the plutons along E–W and NW–SE trending faults in Oligo‐Miocene time. Mineral separates from the Bizmişen and Çaltı plutons yield K‐Ar ages ranging from 42 to 46 Ma, and from 40 to 49 Ma, respectively. Major, trace, and rare‐earth element geochemistry as well as mineralogical and textural evidence reveals that the Bizmişen pluton crystallized first, followed at shallower depth by the Çaltı pluton from a medium‐K calcalkaline, I‐type hybrid magma which was generated by magma mixing of coeval mafic and felsic magmas. Delta 18O values of both plutons fall in the field of I‐type granitoids, although those of the Çaltı pluton are consistently higher than those of the Bizmişen pluton. This is in agreement with field observations, petrographic and whole‐rock geochemical data, which indicate that the Bizmişen pluton represents relatively uncontaminated mantle material, whereas the Çaltı pluton has a significant crustal component. Structural data indicating the middle Eocene emplacement age and intrusion into already obducted ophiolitic rocks, suggest a post‐collisional extensional origin. However, the pure geochemical discrimination diagrams indicate an arc origin which can be inherited either from the source material or from an upper mantle material modified by an early subduction process during the evolution of the Neo‐Tethyan ocean. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

17.
Native copper, both finished artifacts and worked pieces, are relatively common in pre‐Contact sites of northeastern Minnesota. Fifteen artifact samples and seven sources of native copper were submitted for trace‐element analysis as a test of the procedures developed by G. Rapp, Jr. and colleagues (2000). Although the specific sources chosen had high typicality probabilities, very low posterior probabilities preclude confidence that the artifacts were accurately sourced. Potential problems include incomplete characterization of several sources, as well as the limited number of sources in the database. Of more interest than identification of specific sources is the selection of apparent source pairs. Michipicoten (eastern Lake Superior) and Isle Royale (western Lake Superior) are often chosen together; Weyerhauser Mine (Wisconsin) and the Champion Mine (Keewenaw Peninsula) may form another pair. Future research should concentrate on identifying patterns of sources in the region rather than focusing on specific mines. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

18.
Surface scatters of Aboriginal stone artifacts have been exposed in many parts of inland Australia by accelerated erosion that followed the introduction of pastoralism by European settlers in the 19th century. This paper reports on a set of techniques developed to investigate and quantify the effects of these post‐discard disturbance processes in Sturt National Park in northwest NSW, Australia. Backwards, stepwise, linear regression showed the influence of geomorphic parameters such as slope gradient, elevation, landform, and contemporary surface processes on artifact distribution, with artifact maximum dimension as the dependent variable. The results indicate that, even at low gradients, artifact size and slope angle are significantly related, but that the variance in maximum dimension explained by gradient is very low. Similar results were found for the other geomorphic variables. We conclude that artifact movement by surface wash across these surfaces is unlikely to significantly affect artifact distribution. While vertically conflated surface scatters do not preserve “living floors” in a short‐term, functional sense, their apparent horizontal integrity allows investigation of the long‐term use of place by hunter‐gatherer people in the past. Insofar as assemblage integrity is important for assessing site significance in the heritage management industry, our methods provide a means for assessing the degree to which a site has been damaged by water flow. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  相似文献   

19.
Turkey lies on the Alpine-Himalayan belt which is one of the most important geothermal belts in the World. Therefore, there are numerous mineral waters in Anatolia where geological and tectonic activities are intense. Archeological studies conducted in Anatolia, which is the cradle of various civilizations, reveal the fact that mineral water has been used as a spa in many areas.The scope of this study is to evaluate mineral waters in Western Anatolia and their use in thermal resorts for balneological purposes. In this respect, 50 thermal waters used in spa centers were analyzed for various physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters.Among the 50 waters tested, 40 are thermomineral waters while 10 are acratothermal waters. Some of these waters have distinct chemical compositions. Their temperatures are between 21 and 90 °C. Various types of mineral water source occur within this region: 5 of these are sulfurous, 1 has carbon dioxide, 29 have fluorine, 1 has iodine and 3 are saliferous. The thermomineral sources with saline characteristics have balneotherapy potential for treating skin illnesses including psoriasis and rheumatological illnesses.Some waters with appreciable bicarbonate and sulfate concentrations can also be used for balneotherapy; for example for use as a cure for chronic inflammatory diseases of gastrointestinal and urinary systems. They could also be used as a cure for prophylactic and metaphylactic treatment of urolithiasis.However, among 38 sampling sites, 12 sites are bacteriologically contaminated. This indicates that regulations governing the protection of such zones are not properly enforced and that water sources within these regions are not sufficiently protected or inspected.  相似文献   

20.
Excavations at the Wenas Creek Mammoth Site yielded mammoth, bison, and two possible artifacts in a single colluvial stratum, with radiocarbon bone dates ∼17 ka. Eight infrared‐stimulated luminescence (IRSL) samples were collected to establish general ages of site strata, returning multi‐grain estimates consistent with stratigraphic integrity and the radiocarbon dates. Four additional IRSL samples were collected to estimate the depositional age of one artifact found in place. These produced a pooled total of 94 single‐grain estimates from near the artifact, 80% averaging 16.8 ± 0.9 ka, and 20% averaging 5.1 ± 0.5 ka. These results could be interpreted to demonstrate pre‐Clovis age artifact deposition consistent with the bone dates, or a mid to late Holocene intrusion into older deposits, possibly by bioturbation. The single‐grain IRSL dates do not provide proof of pre‐Clovis presence beyond reasonable doubt at this site, but do show that this technique is valuable in assessing the stratigraphic integrity needed for any such claim.  相似文献   

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