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1.
Extensive measurements of ground deformation at the Krafla volcano, Iceland, have been made since the beginning in 1975 of a series of eruptions and intrusions into the fissure system that extends north and south of the volcano. I concentrate on measurements before and after the eruption of September 1984, the last event of this series when the largest volume of lava was erupted. The patterns of ground deformation associated with the 1984 eruption, determined by precision levelling, electronic distance measurements and lake level observations, were similar to earlier intrusions and eruptions, in that the surface of the volcano subsided and the fissure system widened as magma moved laterally from a shallow central reservoir into the fissure system. The shallow magma reservoir of Krafla continued to expand for about five years after the eruption, but a slow subsidence of the central area began in 1989. Besides the presence of an inflating and deflating shallow magma reservoir at a depth of 2.5 km beneath the Krafla caldera, another inflating magma reservoir may exist at much greater depth below Krafla. The accumulation of compressive strain by numerous rift intrusions and eruptions since 1975 along the flanks of the north-south Krafla fissure swarm is being released slowly and will probably be reflected in the results of deformation measurements near Krafla for the next several decades. The total horizontal extension of the Krafla rift system in 1975–1984 was about 9 m, equal to about 500 years of constant plate divergence. The extension is twice the accumulated divergence since previous rifting events and eruptions in 1724–1729  相似文献   

2.
Ponta de São Lourenço is the deeply eroded eastern end of Madeira’s east–west trending rift zone, located near the geometric intersection of the Madeira rift axis with that of the Desertas Islands to the southeast. It dominantly consists of basaltic pyroclastic deposits from Strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruptions, lava flows, and a dike swarm. Main differences compared to highly productive rift zones such as in Hawai’i are a lower dike intensity (50–60 dikes/km) and the lack of a shallow magma reservoir or summit caldera. 40Ar/39Ar age determinations show that volcanic activity at Ponta de São Lourenço lasted from >5.2 to 4 Ma (early Madeira rift phase) and from 2.4 to 0.9 Ma (late Madeira rift phase), with a hiatus dividing the stratigraphy into lower and upper units. Toward the east, the distribution of eruptive centers becomes diffuse, and the rift axis bends to parallel the Desertas ridge. The bending may have resulted from mutual gravitational influence of the Madeira and Desertas volcanic edifices. We propose that Ponta de São Lourenço represents a type example for the interior of a fading rift arm on oceanic volcanoes, with modern analogues being the terminations of the rift zones at La Palma and El Hierro (Canary Islands). There is no evidence for Ponta de São Lourenço representing a former central volcano that interconnected and fed the Madeira and Desertas rifts. Our results suggest a subdivision of volcanic rift zones into (1) a highly productive endmember characterized by a central volcano with a shallow magma chamber feeding one or more rift arms, and (2) a less productive endmember characterized by rifts fed from deep-seated magma reservoirs rather than from a central volcano, as is the case for Ponta de São Lourenço.  相似文献   

3.
Fissure swarms at divergent plate boundaries are activated in rifting events, during which intense fracturing occurs in the fissure swarm accompanied by intrusion of magma to form dikes that sometimes lead to eruptions. To study the evolution of fissure swarms and the behaviour of rifting events, detailed mapping was carried out on fractures and eruptive fissures within the Krafla fissure swarm (KFS). Fracture densities of dated lava flows ranging from 10,000?years bp to ~30?years old were studied, and the fracture pattern was compared with data on the historical Myvatn rifting episode (1724–1729) and the instrumentally recorded Krafla rifting episode (1975–1984). Additionally, the interaction of transform faults and fissure swarms was studied by analysing the influence of the Húsavík transform faults on the KFS. During the historical rifting episodes, eruptions on the fissure swarm occurred within ~7?km from the Krafla central volcano, although faults and fractures were formed or activated at up to 60–70?km distance. This is consistent with earlier rifting patterns, as Holocene eruptive fissures within the KFS are most common closer to the central volcano. Most fractures within the central Krafla caldera are parallel to the overall orientation of the fissure swarm. This suggests that the regional stress field is governing in the Krafla central volcano, while the local stress field of the volcano is generally weak. A sudden widening of the graben in the northern KFS and a local maximum of fracture density at the junction of the KFS and the extrapolation of the Húsavík transform fault zone indicates possible buried continuation of the Húsavík transform fault zone which extends to the KFS. Eruptive fissures are found farther away from the Krafla central volcano in the southern KFS than in the northern KFS. This is either due to an additional magma source in the southern KFS (the Heiearsporeur volcanic system) or caused by the Húsavík transform faults, transferring some of the plate extension in the northern part. Fracture density within particular lava flow fields increases with field age, indicating that repeated rifting events have occurred in the fissure swarm during the last 10,000?years bp. The fracture density in the KFS is also generally higher closer to the Krafla central volcano than at the ends of the fissure swarm. This suggests that rifting events are more common in the parts of the fissure swarm closer to the Krafla central volcano.  相似文献   

4.
The magmatic plumbing system of Kilauea Volcano consists of a broad region of magma generation in the upper mantle, a steeply inclined zone through which magma rises to an intravolcano reservoir located about 2 to 6 km beneath the summit of the volcano, and a network of conduits that carry magma from this reservoir to sites of eruption within the caldera and along east and southwest rift zones. The functioning of most parts of this system was illustrated by activity during 1971 and 1972. When a 29-month-long eruption at Mauna Ulu on the east rift zone began to wane in 1971, the summit region of the volcano began to inflate rapidly; apparently, blockage of the feeder conduit to Mauna Ulu diverted a continuing supply of mantle-derived magma to prolonged storage in the summit reservoir. Rapid inflation of the summit area persisted at a nearly constant rate from June 1971 to February 1972, when a conduit to Mauna Ulu was reopened. The cadence of inflation was twice interrupted briefly, first by a 10-hour eruption in Kilauea Caldera on 14 August, and later by an eruption that began in the caldera and migrated 12 km down the southwest rift zone between 24 and 29 September. The 14 August and 24–29 September eruptions added about 107 m3 and 8 × 106 m3, respectively, of new lava to the surface of Kilauea. These volumes, combined with the volume increase represented by inflation of the volcanic edifice itself, account for an approximately 6 × 106 m3/month rate of growth between June 1971 and January 1972, essentially the same rate at which mantle-derived magma was supplied to Kilauea between 1952 and the end of the Mauna Ulu eruption in 1971.The August and September 1971 lavas are tholeiitic basalts of similar major-element chemical composition. The compositions can be reproduced by mixing various proportions of chemically distinct variants of lava that erupted during the preceding activity at Mauna Ulu. Thus, part of the magma rising from the mantle to feed the Mauna Ulu eruption may have been stored within the summit reservoir from 4 to 20 months before it was erupted in the summit caldera and along the southwest rift zone in August and September.The September 1971 activity was only the fourth eruption on the southwest rift zone during Kilauea's 200 years of recorded history, in contrast to more than 20 eruptions on the east rift zone. Order-of-magnitude differences in topographic and geophysical expression indicate greatly disparate eruption rates for far more than historic time and thus suggest a considerably larger dike swarm within the east rift zone than within the southwest rift zone. Characteristics of the historic eruptions on the southwest rift zone suggest that magma may be fed directly from active lava lakes in Kilauea Caldera or from shallow cupolas at the top of the summit magma reservoir, through fissures that propagate down rift from the caldera itself at the onset of eruption. Moreover, emplacement of this magma into the southwest rift zone may be possible only when compressive stress across the rift is reduced by some unknown critical amount owing either to seaward displacement of the terrane south-southeast of the rift zone or to a deflated condition of Mauna Loa Volcano adjacent to the northwest, or both. The former condition arises when the forceful emplacement of dikes into the east rift zone wedges the south flank of Kilauea seaward. Such controls on the potential for eruption along the southwest rift zone may be related to the topographic and geophysical constrasts between the two rift zones.  相似文献   

5.
Frequent distance measurements across the Krafla fissure swarm, North Iceland, recorded the extension accompanying the sequence of rifting events which started in December, 1975, and lasted for 6 years.An 80 to 90 km long section of the fissure swarm extended during this sequence of rifting and volcanic events. Maximum widening of about 8 m occurred 10 to 12 km north of Leirhnjúkur. which is located above the center of the Krafla magma reservoir. From that location, the amount of widening decreased north-wards and is estimated to exceed 2 m where the seismicity indicated the northern termination of the present rifting, off the north coast, about 70 km north of Leirhnjúkur. The amount of widening also decreased southwards and approached zero at 15 to 20 km south of Leirhnjúkur.The ground deformation associated with these rifting events can be summarised as:A narrow strip, 1 to 2 km wide, along the fissure swarm is heavily fractured with numerous open cracks parallel to the fissure swarm. This fractured strip has subsided 2 to 3 m relative to its flanks.The flanks of the fractured zone have been uplifted relative to regions farther away. The uplift is not well constrained, but tilt observations at several locations indicate about 1 m uplift. The flanks of the rift zone have contracted, perpendicular to the fissure swarm. The maximum contractional strain exceeds 300 mm per km.The amount of areal expansion (windening of the fissure swarm times the length of the fractured zone) associated with these rifting events is estimated to be about 0.30 km2. For individual events, the area of expansion has been roungly proportional to the volume of subsidence above the Krafla magma reservoir.If the width of a new dike is equal widening of surface fissures, the ratio of the subsidence volume to the area of expansion for the best observed events indicated a height of a new dike system as 2.4 to 2.8 km. This ratio is significantly less for events of large lava production, but even during these events, the majority of magma leaving the Krafla reservoir was apparently emplaced in subsurface fissures.  相似文献   

6.
The Krafla rifting episode, which occurred in North Iceland in 1975–1984, was followed by inflation of a shallow magma chamber until 1989. At that time, gradual subsidence began above the magma chamber and has continued to the present at a declining rate. Pressure decrease in a shallow magma chamber is not the only source of deformation at Krafla, as other deformation processes are driven by exploitation of two geothermal fields, together with plate spreading. In addition, deep-seated magma accumulation appears to take place, with its centre ∼ 10 km north of the Krafla caldera. The relative strength of these sources has varied with time. New results from a levelling survey and GPS measurements in 2005 allow an updated view on the deformation field. Deformation rates spanning 2000–2005 are the lowest recorded in the 30-year history of geodetic studies at the volcano. The inferred rate of 2000–2005 subsidence related to processes in the shallow magma chamber is less than 0.3 cm/yr whereas it was ∼ 5 cm/yr in 1989–1992. Currently, the highest rate of subsidence takes place in the Leirbotnar area, within the Krafla caldera, and appears to be a result of geothermal exploitation.  相似文献   

7.
New and previously published micro-gravity data are combined with InSAR data, precise levelling and GPS measurements to produce a model for the processes operating at Krafla volcano, 20 years after its most recent eruption. The data have been divided into two periods: from 1990 to 1995 and from 1996 to 2003 and show that the rate of deflation at Krafla is decaying exponentially. The net micro-gravity change at the centre of the caldera is shown, using the measured free air gradient, to be −85 μGal for the first and −100 μGal for the second period. After consideration of the effects of water extraction by the geothermal power station within the caldera, the net gravity decreases are −73±17 μGal for the first and −65±17 μGal for the second period. These decreases are interpreted in terms of magma drainage. Following a Mogi point source model, we calculate the mass decrease to be ∼2×1010 kg/year reflecting a drainage rate of ∼0.23 m3/s, similar to the ∼0.13 m3/s drainage rate previously found at Askja volcano, N. Iceland. Based on the evidence for deeper magma reservoirs and the similarity between the two volcanic systems, we suggest a pressure-link between Askja and Krafla at deeper levels (at the lower crust or the crust-mantle boundary). After the Krafla fires, co-rifting pressure decrease of a deep source at Krafla stimulated the subsequent inflow of magma, eventually affecting conditions along the plate boundary in N. Iceland, as far away as Askja. We anticipate that the pressure of the deeper reservoir at Krafla will reach a critical value and eventually magma will rise from there to the shallow magma chamber, possibly initiating a new rifting episode. We have demonstrated that by examining micro-gravity and geodetic data, our knowledge of active volcanic systems can be significantly improved.Editorial responsibility: A. Harris  相似文献   

8.
A very broad band (10?3 to 104 Hz) magnetotelluric investigation of the axial zone of the Ghoubbet-Asal rift (Djibouti) has revealed a shallow (2–4 km) magma chamber which can be mapped in some detail. The suggested roof of the chamber is shallowest very close to the Ardoukoba volcano which was built during the November 1978 rifting episode.  相似文献   

9.
The dynamics of the shallow magma reservoir at Krafla Volcano in NE Iceland have been analyzed with three types of elastic models based on over 70 surveys of tilt and displacement made from 1975 to 1985, a period of continuous volcano-tectonic activity. Modeling results are integrated with geophysical and geological information to estimate the position, geometry, and volume change of magma reservoir domains subjected to periodic inflation and deflation. Dominating influences on magma reservoir dynamics are examined in the context of activity in Krafla's associated rift system and the deformation of its caldera from 1975–1985. Rather than the fluid-filled cavity concept of Mogi (1958) and most recent workers, our models are idealized as strained regions with spherical, double-spherical, or general ellipsoidal symmetry. The models are mathematically generalized from that of Mogi (1958) and are derived by inversion of displacements. Model results from different displacement components are remarkably consistent, although models based on vertical displacements typically have errors-of-fit much closer to expected measurement errors than those based on tilt or horizontal displacements. About one half of the double-sphere and ellipsoid models have significantly better fits than single-sphere models. Double-sphere model results are consistent with a 2 to 3 km center-to-center separation of magma storage zones from at least 2 km to 4 km depth by portions of the fissure system, as implied by S-wave attenuation patterns for 1976–1977. However, all models suggest pressurization zones of more limited extent than possible domains of storage inferred from S-wave attenuation. Ellipsoid models typically implied unrealistically shallow depths of magma storage. Caldera inflation rates decreased after January 1978 when the caldera periodically reinflated to its level prior to the initial December 1975 deflation event. From 1975–1980 the volume and duration of inflation between deflation events was strongly correlated with the volume of the previous deflation. After 1980 there was a significant increase in the duration of inflation periods and a decrease in rates of caldera inflation and fissure system widening. Consistent with these results, the magma reservoir is conceptualized as a hot rock mass containing numerous magma chambers and pressure-sensitive conduits connecting the chambers and deep magma sources. Magma is injected into the fissure system at critical pressures determined by the confining stress and rock mass strength. The duration and volume of inflation required to reach a critical pressure threshold is largely dependent on the volume of magma released in the previous deflation. Reduction of the extension rate across the Krafla fissure system after 1980 suggests that extensional forces were also reduced. A resultant rise of confining pressure on the magma reservoir and a reduced capacity of the fissure system to accommodate dike injection in combination would have increased critical stress levels for reservoir deflation and reduced the pressure gradient driving magma supply from deep sources.  相似文献   

10.
The southern part of the southeastern Carpathians represents the site of the most recent volcanic eruptions of the entire Carpathian-Pannonian region. The products of these eruptions range from 42 to 10?Ka radiocarbon ages in the South Harghita Mountains (high K calc-alkaline rocks with adakite-like features), and at 1.2–0.6?Ma?K–Ar ages in the Per?ani Mountains (alkali basalts). They were emplaced in a post-collisional regime. Ciomadul volcano is located at the southernmost part of the NW–SE oriented C?limani-Gurghiu-Harghita range crossing the inner part of the southeastern Carpathians and in the rough proximity of the Vrancea seismic zone (at ca. 60?km toward NW). Its magma generation is attributed to geodynamic events closely related to the seismogenic area. A number of particular geophysical and geochemical features located in the study region, including (1) the abrupt attenuation of the seismic waves originating from the Vrancea intermediate-depth foci, (2) the most intense heat-flow anomaly in Romania, (3) the most prominent 3He/4He anomaly measured in natural “postvolcanic” gas emanations, are all in favor of the hypothesis of a still existing hot local magma chamber. Data acquired during recent seismic monitoring of the Vrancea zone and its neighborhoods suggest an enhancement of the local seismicity beneath the southern edge of the South Harghita Mts., both at crustal and subcrustal levels. At the same time, recent tomography images obtained using local earthquake data correlate well with the presence of a vertically extended low-velocity zone coming from the upper mantle to the assumed magmatic chambers located in the crust. The present data, supporting the presence of an active crustal magma chamber beneath Ciomadul, allow us to consider that future volcanic activity at this volcano cannot be discarded.  相似文献   

11.
The lower crust of magmatically active rifts is usually too hot and ductile to allow seismicity. The Icelandic mid-Atlantic rift is characterized by high heat flow, abundant magmatism generating up to 25–30 km thick crust, and seismicity within the upper 8 km of the crust. In a 20-seismometer survey in July-August 2006 within the northern rift zone around the Askja volcano we recorded ~1700 upper-crustal earthquakes cutting off at 7–8 km depth, marking the brittle-ductile boundary. Unexpectedly, we discovered 100 small-magnitude (ML <1.5) earthquakes, occurring in swarms mostly at 14–26 km depth within the otherwise aseismic lower crust, and beneath the completely aseismic middle crust. A repeat survey during July-August 2007 yielded more than twice as many lower-crustal events. Geodetic and gravimetric data indicate melt drainage from crustal magma chambers beneath Askja. We interpret the microearthquakes to be caused by melt moving through the crust from the magma source feeding Askja. They represent bursts of magma motion opening dykes over distances of a few meters, facilitated by the extensional setting of the active rift zone.  相似文献   

12.
Many earthquakes within the crust near Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe volcanoes, recorded at epicentral distances less than 20 km on vertical seismometers, show S-waves of lower dominant frequency than the P-waves. A large number also have amplitudes in the S-group less than those of the P-waves. Whereas the reduced amplitude of S-waves relative to that of P-waves can be a source mechanism effect, the corresponding reduction in dominant frequency should be independent of the source radiation pattern. The most plausible reason for such a reduction in dominant S-wave frequency is that the waves have passed through a zone of partially molten rock. The data are therefore interpreted in terms of the presence of magma in restricted zones near the volcanoes.Using ray paths from 232 hypocentres to three permanent seismograph stations, together with paths from three additional earthquakes to one permanent and two temporary stations, an interpretation in three dimensions has been made of the source of the anomalous attenuation at depths between 2 and 10 km below datum (Ruapehu Crater Lake). Wave paths which lie largely at depths shallower than 2 km cannot be used, as almost all such paths show evidence of enhanced S-wave attenuation, and this is attributed to the presence of superficial pyroclastic and unconsolidated laharic material within 2 km of the surface.At Ruapehu, the data suggest the presence of three principal intrusions, one underlying much of the southwest slopes and reaching as far east as Crater Lake, one beneath the eastern side of the Summit Plateau, and one beneath part of the northeast slopes of the volcano. All three are essentially vertical or steeply dipping structures, detectable to a depth of between 7 and 9 km. The first appears to extend to within about 5 km of the surface, whereas the other two have intruded to within 2 or 3 km. Other, less well-defined, and comparatively small bodies exist beneath both the western and eastern slopes of Ruapehu.In the Ngauruhoe area, few earthquakes have occurred and all have been at depths less than 6 km. Therefore, only shallow attenuating areas can be defined. A small area of anomalous S-wave attenuation occurs beneath the northwest slopes of Ngauruhoe, and another, elongated, body appears to coincide with a fault zone west of the volcano. Both of these lie at depths of about 3 km below datum (less than 2 km below surface in one locality).Finally, areas of high attenuation, at depths of 4–5 km below datum, appear to define a narrow east-west zone about 6 km long in the immediate area of Whakapapa village. Other zones exist east of the volcanic axis, defining a line which cuts the axis on the north east slopes of Ruapehu, at a point where a parasite crater formed a few thousand years ago.  相似文献   

13.
The Yellowstone volcano is one of the largest active volcanoes in the world, and its potential hazards demand detailed seismological and geodetic studies. Previous studies with travel time tomography and receiver functions have revealed a low-velocity layer in the crust beneath the Yellowstone volcano, suggesting the presence of a magma chamber at depth. We use ambient seismic noise from regional seismic stations to retrieve short-period surface waves and then study the shallow shear velocity structure of the Yellowstone region by surface wave dispersion analysis. We first obtained a crustal model of the area outside of the Yellowstone volcano and then constructed an absolute shear wave velocity structure in combination with receiver function results for the crust beneath the Yellowstone volcano. The velocity model shows a low-velocity layer with shear velocity at around 1.3 km/s, suggesting that a large-scale magma chamber exists at shallow levels within the crust of the Yellowstone volcanic region.  相似文献   

14.
Iwate volcano, Japan, showed significant volcanic activity including earthquake swarms and volcano inflation from the beginning of 1998. A large earthquake of magnitude 6.1 hit the south-west of the volcano on September 3. Although a 1 km2 fumarole field formed, blighting plants on the ridge in the western part of the volcano in the spring of 1999, no magmatic eruptions occurred. We reconcile the spatio-temporal distributions of volcanic pressure sources determined by previously reported studies in which GPS, strain and tilt data from dense geodetic station networks are analyzed (Miura et al. Earth Planet Space 52:1003–1008, 2000; Sato and Hamaguchi J Volcanol Geotherm Res 155:244–262, 2006). We calculate the magma supply rates from their results and compare them with the occurrence rates of volcanic earthquakes. The results show that the magma supply rates are almost constant or even decrease with time while the earthquake occurrence rate increases with time. This contrast in their temporal changes is interpreted to result from stress accumulation in the volcanic edifice caused by constant magma supply without effusion of magma to the surface. We further show that data showing slight acceleration in strain can be best explained by magma ascent at a constant velocity, and that there is no evidence for increased magma buoyancy resulting from gas bubble growth. This consideration supports the interpretation that the magma stayed at 2 km depth and horizontally migrated. These findings relating magma supply rate and seismicity to magma ascent process are clues to understanding why no magmatic eruption occurred at Iwate volcano in 1998.  相似文献   

15.
From a combination of results of gravity, magnetic and seismic refraction surveys, the dike complex under the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii was found to extend for 110 km from the summit area of the volcano to a point 60 km at sea beyond the eastern tip of the island. Near the summit the complex is 20 km wide, and at about 40 km distance from the summit, the complex narrows to 12 km wide. The main body of the dike complex is 2.3 km deep, but some parts are as shallow as 1 km. From extrapolation of temperature data of a deep well and from analysis of magnetic data, it was inferred that temperature of the dike complex is above the Curic point of 540°C. The internal part of the complex can approach the melting point of 1060°C. The dike complex was formed by numerous excursions of magma from the holding reservoir under the volcano summit. The theory of forceful intrusion of magma into rift zones accounts for the magma excursions and migration of the passageways. Gravity and seismic velocity data indicate that density of the material left in the dike complex is 3.1 g/cm3. In the light of recent density determinations of Hawaiian rocks under high pressure and temperature, it is concluded that during Hawaiian volcanic activity, less dense components of the parent magma crupt through surface vents while the more dense components remain trapped below. Samples of the dense material from the dike complex are required before we can have a complete picture of the parent magma of Hawaiian volcanoes. The dike complex is the source of thermal energy for a commercial quality geothermal reservoir that was found by drilling.  相似文献   

16.
The thermal energy balance and the temperature profile of the Hakone volcano are considered quantitatively. Across the Hakone volcano and its surroundings the heat flow values vary from 10–1 to 103 mW/m2, due to thermal conduction and mass flow involving volcanic steam and hot spring discharge. An area with extremely low heat flow is observed in the western side of the caldera showing the presence of percolating meteoric water. The hydrothermal activity is intense in the eastern half of the caldera.The total heat discharge from the high temperature zone (discharge area) of the Hakone volcano amounts to 11.0×107 W. The magmatic steam energy discharge is 95.0×106 W. The thermal energy by redistribution of the terrestrial heat flow by the lateral deep ground water flow is calculated to be 9.00×106 W. For the model having the vertical vent in the volcano's central part up to 1 km depth below the ground surface from a magma reservoir the computed temperature distribution is consistent with the observed values. The depth of the magma reservoir is 7 km below the ground surface and the diameter is 5 km.  相似文献   

17.
Morphostructural, stratigraphic and tectonic data indicate that the evolution of Gough volcano is similar to other oceanic intraplate volcanoes, is older than 1 Ma, and is related to a transform fault. At least six evolutionary stages can be distinguished within two major magmatostructural periods dominated by basaltic and trachytic magmas, respectively.The basaltic shield volcano is characterized by a curved, elongated shape in plan and a rift zone with a high density of dykes, combined with a radial intrusive system. The latter is interpreted as being fed by a magma chamber some 4 km below the surface. The activity of the volcano became more centralized at the end of the basaltic period and its slopes became steeper. This corresponds to the development of a shallower and narrower central conduit in the edifice. The basaltic period was terminated by formation of a shield caldera related to the 4 km deep magma chamber. The term “shield caldera” is used for a collapse structure that is postmagmatic, large in comparison with the diameter of the volcano, and delimited by normal faults that do not show a closed circular pattern but rather a series of arcs. In contrast, summit calderas are defined as smaller, circular-shaped, centrally situated, synmagmatic features, related to a central shallow column. During the basaltic period, landslides were generated on the flanks of the edifice as a result of slope stability factors which are not easy to determine at present, and dynamic factors among which the intrusion of magma along a curved zone certainly played a major role.The trachytic period is characterized by comparatively rare pyroclastic deposits and a large volume of thick flows extruded from domes. These extrusions, as well as plugs, formed from vertical cylindrical columns of magma rising from shallow individual magma pockets fed by the main reservoir.  相似文献   

18.
Heimaey is the southernmost and also the youngest of nine volcanic centres in the southward-propagating Eastern Volcanic Zone, Iceland. The island of Heimaey belongs to the Vestmannaeyjar volcanic system (850 km2) and is situated 10 km off the south coast of Iceland. Although Heimaey probably started to form during the Upper Pleistocene all the exposed subaerial volcanics (10 monogenetic vents covering an area of 13.4 km2) are of Holocene age. Heimaey is composed of roughly equal amounts of tuff/tuff-breccias and lavas as most eruptions involve both a phreatomagmatic and an effusive phase. The compositions of the extrusives are predominantly alkali basalts belonging to the sodic series. Repeated eruptions on Heimaey, and the occurrence of slightly more evolved rocks (i.e. hawaiite approaching mugearite), might indicate that the island is in an early stage of forming a central volcano in the Vestmannaeyjar system. This is further substantiated by the development of a magma chamber at 10–20 km depth during the most recent eruption in 1973 and by the fact that the average volume of material produced in a single eruption on Heimaey is 0.32 km3 (dense rock equivalent), which is twice the value reported for the Vestmannaeyjar system as a whole. We find no support for the previously postulated episodic behaviour of the volcanism in the Vestmannaeyjar system. However, the oldest units exposed above sea level, i.e. the Norðurklettar ridge, probably formed over a 500-year interval during the deglaciation of southern Iceland. The absence of equilibrium phenocryst assemblages in the Heimaey lavas suggests that magma rose quickly from depth, without long-time ponding in shallow-seated crustal magma chambers. Eruptions on Heimaey have occurred along two main lineaments (N45°E and N65°E), which indicate that it is seismic events associated with the southward propagation of the Eastern Volcanic Zone that open pathways for the magma to reach the surface. Continuing southward propagation of the Eastern Volcanic Zone suggests that the frequency of volcanic eruptions in the Vestmannaeyjar system might increase with time, and that Heimaey may develop into a central volcano like the mature volcanic centres situated on the Icelandic mainland.  相似文献   

19.
Fifty-three major explosive eruptions on Iceland and Jan Mayen island were identified in 0–6-Ma-old sediments of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans by the age and the chemical composition of silicic tephra. The depositional age of the tephra was estimated using the continuous record in sediment of paleomagnetic reversals for the last 6 Ma and paleoclimatic proxies (δ18O, ice-rafted debris) for the last 1 Ma. Major element and normative compositions of glasses were used to assign the sources of the tephra to the rift and off-rift volcanic zones in Iceland, and to the Jan Mayen volcanic system. The tholeiitic central volcanoes along the Iceland rift zones were steadily active with the longest interruption in activity recorded between 4 and 4.9 Ma. They were the source of at least 26 eruptions of dominant rhyolitic magma composition, including the late Pleistocene explosive eruption of Krafla volcano of the Eastern Rift Zone at about 201 ka. The central volcanoes along the off-rift volcanic zones in Iceland were the source of at least 19 eruptions of dominant alkali rhyolitic composition, with three distinct episodes recorded at 4.6–5.3, 3.5–3.6, and 0–1.8 Ma. The longest and last episode recorded 11 Pleistocene major events including the two explosive eruptions of Tindfjallajökull volcano (Thórsmörk, ca. 54.5 ka) and Katla volcano (Sólheimar, ca. 11.9 ka) of the Southeastern Transgressive Zone. Eight major explosive eruptions from the Jan Mayen volcanic system are recorded in terms of the distinctive grain-size, mineralogy and chemistry of the tephra. The tephra contain K-rich glasses (K2O/SiO2>0.06) ranging from trachytic to alkali rhyolitic composition. Their normative trends (Ab–Q–Or) and their depleted concentrations of Ba, Eu and heavy-REE reflect fractional crystallisation of K-feldspar, biotite and hornblende. In contrast, their enrichment in highly incompatible and water-mobile trace elements such as Rb, Th, Nb and Ta most likely reflect crustal contamination. One late Pleistocene tephra from Jan Mayen was recorded in the marine sequence. Its age, estimated between 617 and 620 ka, and its composition support a common source with the Borga pumice formation at Sør Jan in the south of the island.  相似文献   

20.
长白山天池火山岩浆系统分析   总被引：13，自引：1，他引：12       下载免费PDF全文
针对外媒报道长白山天池火山在近2年内有可能喷发的言论,在长白山天池火山区布测了一条长度约为103 km的二维大地电磁测深观测剖面,对火山区深部电性结构进行探测研究.由于研究区内不明来源的电磁干扰非常强,对数据采用了远参考处理、Robust处理、Rhoplus分析、张量阻抗分解和基于一维层状介质电阻率与相位互算方法等先进处理技术,获取到一批在强干扰区质量较为可靠的电磁数据,利用数据计算分析了长白山天池火山区二维构造走向和感应矢量特征,采用NLCG二维反演技术对资料进行了二维反演解释,并将反演结果与前人探测结果进行了对比分析.探测结果表明:在天池火山口下方存在明显的直立型岩浆通道,岩浆通道在下方约5~8 km位置形成关闭;在火山口下方往北方向附近,在埋深位置约7 km深处存在一个明显的低阻异常体,电阻率小于10 Ωm,且与岩浆通道对接,推测其可能是地表浅部发育的岩浆囊;在长白山山门附近C07-C09号测点之间和C04-C05号测点之间,在埋深约7~17 km深处发现近直立型低阻带,低阻带与下方低阻体直接相连,推测低阻带内赋存有活动的岩浆;随着埋深的增加,从天池火山口南部约20 km位置往北方向,在埋深13~30 km之间壳内广泛发育明显的低阻异常体,推测其可能是活动的岩浆囊.反演结果与前人探测结果整体电性特征相似,但又局部不同.  相似文献   

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