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1.
We present a glaciological and climatic reconstruction of a former glacier in Coire Breac, an isolated cirque within the Eastern Grampian plateau of Scotland, 5 km from the Highland edge. Published glacier reconstructions of presumed Younger Dryas‐age glaciers in this area show that equilibrium line altitudes decreased steeply towards the east coast, implying a arctic maritime glacial environment. Extrapolation of the ELA trend surface implies that glaciers should have existed in suitable locations on the plateau, a landscape little modified by glaciation. In Coire Breac, a 0.35 km2 cirque glacier existed with an equilibrium line altitude of 487 ± 15 m above present sea level. The equilibrium line altitude matches closely the extrapolated regional equilibrium line altitude trend surface for Younger Dryas Stadial glaciers. The mean glacier thickness of 24 m gives an ice volume of 7.8 × 106 m3, and a maximum basal shear stress of c. 100 kPa?1. Ablation gradient was c. –0.0055 m m?1, with a mean July temperature at the equilibrium line altitude of c. 5.1°C. The reconstruction implies an arctic maritime climate of low precipitation with local accumulation enhanced by blown snow, which may explain the absence of other contemporary glaciers nearby. Reconstructed ice flow lines show zones of flow concentration around the lower ice margin which help to explain the distribution of depositional facies associated with a former debris cover which may have delayed eventual glacier retreat. No moraines in the area have been dated, so palaeoclimatic interpretations remain provisional, and a pre‐Lateglacial Interstadial age cannot be ruled out.  相似文献   

2.
We present here a revised reconstruction of the Ross ice drainage system of Antarctica at the last glacial maximum (LGM) based on a recent convergence of terrestrial and marine data. The Ross drainage system includes all ice flowlines that enter the marine Ross Embayment. Today, it encompasses one-fourth of the ice-sheet surface, extending far inland into both East and West Antarctica. Grounding lines now situated in the inner Ross Embayment advanced seaward at the LGM (radiocarbon chronology in Denton and Marchant 2000 and in Hall and Denton 2000a, b), resulting in a thick grounded ice sheet across the Ross continental shelf. In response to this grounding in the Ross (and Weddell) Embayment, ice-surface elevations of the marine-based West Antarctic Ice Sheet were somewhat higher at the LGM than at present (Steig and White 1997; Borns et al. 1998; Ackert et al. 1999). At the same time, surface elevations of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet inland of the Transantarctic Mountains were slightly lower than now, except near outlet glaciers that were dammed by grounded ice in the Ross Embayment. The probable reason for this contrasting behavior is that lowered global sea level at the LGM, from growth of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets, caused widespread grounding of the marine portion of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, whereas decreased LGM accumulation led to slight surface lowering of the interior terrestrial ice sheet in East Antarctica. Rising sea level after the LGM tripped grounding-line recession in the Ross Embayment, which has probably continued to the present day (Conway et al. 1999). Hence, gravitational collapse of the grounded ice sheet from the Ross Embayment, accompanied by lowering of the interior West Antarctic ice surface and of outlet glaciers in the Transantarctic Mountains, occurred largely during the Holocene. At the same time, increased Holocene accumulation caused a slight rise of the inland East Antarctic ice surface.  相似文献   

3.
The easternmost extremity of the ice cap that developed in the Tasmanian Central Highlands during the time of most extensive Late Cainozoic glaciation lay on the doleritecapped Central Plateau east and north-east of Lake St Clair. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the more restricted ice cover included a small discrete ice cap (probably less than 250-300 m thick) that formed on the Central Plateau. The LGM ice limits on the southern part of the Central Plateau, including all five southern outlet valleys, are reported here. Earlier ice limits have been identified in two of these valleys, but on the plateau proper earlier glacial deposits have been generally extensively reworked beyond the LGM limit, such that confirmation of a glacial origin for diamictons on slopes is difficult. South of the plateau, the oldest deposits flooring lower reaches of two outlet valleys indicate that ice flowed southwards directly from the plateau, but later deposits indicate diffluent flow from the Derwent Glacier.  相似文献   

4.
ABSTRACT. A time-dependent model is used to investigate the interaction between climate, extent and fluctuations of Patagonian ice sheet between 45° and 48°S during the last glacial maximum (LGM) and its subsequent deglaciation. The model is applied at 2 km resolution and enables ice thickness, lithospheric response and ice deformation and sliding to interact freely and is perturbed from present day by relative changes in sea level and equilibrium line altitude (ELA). Experiments implemented to identify an LGM configuration compatible with the available empirical record, indicate that a stepped ELA lowering of 750 to 950 m is required over 15000 years to bracket the Fenix I-V suite of moraines at Lago Buenos Aires. However, 900 m of ELA lowering yields an ice sheet which best matches the Fenix V moraine (c. 23000 a BP) and Caldenius' reconstructed LGM limit for the entire modelled area. This optimum LGM experiment yields a highly dynamic, low aspect ice sheet, with a mean ice thickness of c. 1130 m drained by numerous large ice streams to the western, seaward margin and two large, fast-flowing outlet lobes to the east. Forcing this scenario into deglaciation using a re-scaled Vostok ice core record results in an ice sheet that slowly shrinks by 25% to c. 14500 a bp , after which it experiences a rapid collapse, loosing some 85% of its volume in c. 800 years. Its margins stabilize during the Antarctic Cold Reversal after which it shrinks to near present-day limits by 11 000 a bp .  相似文献   

5.
Abstract Basal ice samples were collected from ice exposures in a natural subglacial cavity beneath an outlet glacier of Øksfjordjøkelen, North Norway. Sediment and cation (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+) concentrations were then determined, and indicate stacking of basal ice units producing a repeat pattern of ‘clean firnification ice’ overlying sediment‐rich ice. All measured cations show correlation with sediment concentration indicating weathering reactions to be the dominant contributor of cations. Regressions of specific sediment surface area per unit volume with cation concentration are performed and used to predict cation concentrations. These predicted values provide an indication of cation relocation within the basal ice sequence. The results suggest limited melting and refreezing resulting in the relocation of predominantly monovalent cations downward through the profile. Exchange of cations into solution during the melting of sediment‐rich ice samples has previously been suggested as a source of error in such investigations. Analyses of sediment‐free regelation ice spicules formed at the bed show cation concentrations above firnification ice levels and comparable, in many instances, to the basal ice samples.  相似文献   

6.
Glacier Benito is a temperate outlet glacier on the west side of the North Patagonian Icefield. Rates of thinning and ablation were obtained using data collected by the British Joint Services Expedition in 1972/73 and subsequent data collected in 2007 and 2011. Ice‐front recession rates were based on dendrochronological dating for the terminal moraines and aerial and satellite imagery of the ice front in 1944, 1998 and 2002. Between the first Benito survey in 1973 and 2007, the lower glacier thinned by nearly 150 m at an average rate of 4.3 m yr?1 with the rate increasing to 6.1 m yr?1 between 2007 and 2011, a 28.7% increase during the latter period. Increases in ice movement and ablation were negligible: ice movement for 1973 and 2007 averaged 0.45 m day?1 and ablation averaged 0.05 m day?1. Ice front recession along the glacier's centre line from 1886 to 2002 was approximately 1860 m. Retreat rates between 1886 and 1944 averaged 8.9 m yr?1. Thereafter glacier asymmetry makes measurement along the glacier centre line unrepresentative of areal change until 1998 when symmetry was restored; retreat between 1944 and 1998 was 15.4 m yr?1. From 1998 to 2002 the rate increased dramatically to 127.2 m yr?1. Recession from the southern end of Benito's terminal moraine in the 1850s supports an early date for initial retreat of the Icefield's glaciers.  相似文献   

7.
Presented are the results obtained from radar profiling of the Peretolchin glacier in the Munku-Sardyk mountain range in the south of Siberia (June 2014 and May 2016) using georadar OKO-2 with the ABDL Triton antenna unit operating at the radiation frequency of 50 and 100 MHz. The ice thickness was determined from the profiles and the ice volumes from the cross-sectional areas and distances between profiles. The ice volume was calculated for the body of the Peretolchin glacier to be 0.007 ± 0.0019 km3. An analytical method was also used to determine the ice volume according to the type and area of glacier. It is established that the correlation between the glacier volume and area is expressed by a power function V = kS p . The mean ice volume, calculated with due regard for different coefficients, was 0.0061 km3. The GlabTop model that assumes the cross-sectional form of the glacier was used to infer the ice volume: the mean volume for two cross-sections (parabolic and elliptic) was 0.0073 km3. It is found that over 110 years since the start of the investigation into the morphology of the Peretolchin glacier, it has increased twice in its length and in area, its volume has decreased by a factor of 3.7, and the lower boundary of the open part of the glacier has risen 184 meters during that period.  相似文献   

8.
Detailed geomorphological mapping provides evidence for at least three phases of glaciation in the Parque Natural Lago de Sanabria, in northwest Spain. The most extensive glaciation was characterised by a large plateau ice cap. A combination of geomorphological evidence and glacier modelling indicates that this ice cap covered an area of more than 440 km2, with a maximum ice thickness of c. 300 m and outlet glaciers reaching as low as 1000 m. This represents the largest ice mass in Iberia outside the Pyrenees and one of the largest in the mountains of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. Radiocarbon dates from the base of lacustrine sequences appear to suggest that the most extensive phase of ice-cap glaciation occurred during the last cold stage (Weichselian) with deglaciation occurring before 14–15 ka 14C BP. A second phase of glaciation is recorded by the moraines of valley glaciers, which may have drained small plateau ice caps; whilst a final phase of glaciation is recorded by moraines in the highest cirques.  相似文献   

9.
Ice surface topography of a late Pleistocene glacier complex, herein named the Taylor River Glacier Complex (TRGC), was reconstructed on the basis of detailed mapping of glacial landforms combined with analyses of aerial photos and topographic maps. During the last glacial maximum (LGM), the TRGC covered an area of 215 km2 and consisted of five valley or outlet glaciers that were nourished by accumulation in cirques basins and/or upland ice fields.Equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) for the glaciers of the TRGC were estimated using the accumulation-area ratio method, assuming that ratio to be 0.65 ± 0.05. ELAs thus derived ranged from about 3275 to 3400 m, with a mean of 3340 ± 60 m. A degree-day model (DDM) was used to infer the climatic significance of the LGM ELA. With no appreciable differences in precipitation with respect to modern climate, the ELA implies that mean summer temperatures during the LGM were 7.6 °C cooler than today. The DDM was also used to determine the temperatures required to maintain steady-state mass balances for each of the reconstructed glaciers. The required reductions in summer temperature vary little about a mean of 7.1 °C. The sensitivity of these results to slight (± 25%) changes assumed for LGM precipitation are less than ± 0.5 °C. Even under an LGM climate in which precipitation is assumed to be substantially different (± 50%) than the present, mean summer temperatures must be on the order of 7.0 to 8.5 °C lower to depress equilibrium lines to LGM altitudes. The greater sensitivity of the ELA to changes in temperature suggests that glaciation in the region was driven more by decreases in summer temperature rather than increases in precipitation.  相似文献   

10.
Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope has important implication on water and moisture transportation tracing research. Based on stable hydrogen (δD) and oxygen (δ18O) isotope using a Picarro L1102-i and water chemistry (e.g. major ions, pH, EC and TDS) measurement, this study discussed the temporal variation and characteristics of stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope, chemistry (e.g. TDS, pH, EC, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and Cl-) in various water bodies including glacier meltwater runoff, ice and snow, and precipitation at the Laohugou glacier basin during June 2012 to September 2013. Results showed that δD and δ18O in the meltwater runoff varied obviously with the temporal change from June to September, showing firstly increasing trend and then decreasing trend, with the highest values in July with high air temperature and strong glacier melting, which could indicate the temporal change of glacier melting process and extent. Variations of δD and δ18O in the runoff were similar with that of snow and ice on the glacier, and the values were also above the GMWL, which probably implied that the glacier runoff was mainly originated from glacier melting and precipitation supply. The glacier meltwater chemical type at the Laohugou glacier basin were mainly composed by Ca-Na-HCO3-SO4 and Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4, which also varied evidently with the glacier melting process in summer. By analyzing the temporal change of stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope and chemistry in the melting period, we find it is easy to separate the components of the snow and ice, atmospheric precipitation and melt-runoff in the river, which could reflect the change process of glacier melting during the melting period, and thus this work can contribute to the glacier runoff change study of large-scale region by stable isotope and geochemical method in future.  相似文献   

11.
Glaciers are the most important fresh-water resources in arid and semi-arid regions of western China. According to the Second Chinese Glacier Inventory (SCGI), primarily compiled from Landsat TM/ETM+ images, the Qilian Mountains had 2684 glaciers covering an area of 1597.81±70.30 km2 and an ice volume of ~84.48 km3 from 2005 to 2010. While most glaciers are small (85.66% are <1.0 km2), some larger ones (12.74% in the range 1.0–5.0 km2) cover 42.44% of the total glacier area. The Laohugou Glacier No.12 (20.42 km2) located on the north slope of the Daxue Range is the only glacier >20 km2 in the Qilian Mountains. Median glacier elevation was 4972.7 m and gradually increased from east to west. Glaciers in the Qilian Mountains are distributed in Gansu and Qinghai provinces, which have 1492 glaciers (760.96 km2) and 1192 glaciers (836.85 km2), respectively. The Shule River basin contains the most glaciers in both area and volume. However, the Heihe River, the second largest inland river in China, has the minimum average glacier area. A comparison of glaciers from the SCGI and revised glacier inventory based on topographic maps and aerial photos taken from 1956 to 1983 indicate that all glaciers have receded, which is consistent with other mountain and plateau areas in western China. In the past half-century, the area and volume of glaciers decreased by 420.81 km2 (–20.88%) and 21.63 km3 (–20.26%), respectively. Glaciers with areas <1.0 km2 decreased the most in number and area recession. Due to glacier shrinkage, glaciers below 4000 m completely disappeared. Glacier changes in the Qilian Mountains presented a clear longitudinal zonality, i.e., the glaciers rapidly shrank in the east but slowly in the central-west. The primary cause of glacier recession was warming temperatures, which was slightly mitigated with increased precipitation.  相似文献   

12.
Hooker Glacier in the central Southern Alps of New Zealand has undergone significant downwasting and recession (～2.14 km) during the last two centuries. High retreat rates (51 m a?1 1986–2001, 43 m a?1 2001–2011) have produced a large (1.22 km2) proglacial lake. We present a retreat scenario for Hooker Glacier. A retreat scenario predicts that the glacier terminus will stabilise >3 km up‐valley of the current lake outlet after 2028 when ice velocity equals calving rate.  相似文献   

13.
The Kanas River originates on the southern slope of Youyi Peak, the largest center of modern glaciers in Altai Mountains, China. Three sets of moraines and associated glacial sediments are well preserved near the Kanas Lake outlet, recording a complex history and landscape evolution during the Last Glacial. Dating the moraines allows the temporal and spatial glacier shift and climate during the Last Glacial to be determined, and then constrains when and how the Kanas Lake basin was formed. Dating of the glacial tills was undertaken by utilizing the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) method. Results date four samples from the three sets of moraines to 28.0, 34.4, 38.1, and 49.9 ka and one sample from outwash sediment to 6.8 ka. The Kanas Lake basin is a downfaulted basin and was eroded by glacier before 28.0 ka, and the glacial moraines blocked the glacier-melt water after the glacier retreat, which made the present-day Kanas Lake eventually form at least before 6.8 ka BP. In Altai Mountains, the glacier advance was more extensive in Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 than MIS 2, probably because the mid-latitude westerlies shifted northward and/or intensified during the MIS 3, resulting in a more positive glacier mass balance. Nevertheless, the Siberian High dominated the Altai Mountains in MIS 2, resulting in a relative decrease in precipitation.  相似文献   

14.
冰川跃动是冰川周期性地快速运动,给下游生命财产安全带来巨大威胁。对已经发现的跃动冰川进行监测不仅有助于提高对冰川跃动机理的认识,而且对冰川跃动灾害预警预报和风险评估都具有重要的意义。在中国第二次冰川编目中发现,1963-2009年东帕米尔高原昆盖山的5Y663L0023冰川末端发生大幅前进。本文利用Landsat影像、ASTER立体像对等数据对该冰川前进过程进行监测研究。结果表明：该冰川于1990-1992年和2007-2013年分别前进81±30 m和811±30 m,其中2007-2013年的前进属于跃动引发的前进。其中跃动最高峰在2007年8月21日-2008年10月26日,期间32.7×106 m3的冰体发生卸载,导致末端前进了704±30 m,面积扩张了0.34 km2。针对东帕米尔地区跃动冰川周期研究的空白,本文认为该冰川跃动周期中跃动期为4 a,平静期最短为15 a左右。该冰川属于多温型冰川,跃动受热力学机制影响的可能性较大,但液态降水、冰雪融水的增加也是影响因素。  相似文献   

15.
Storglaciären is a 3.2 km long polythermal valley glacier in northern Sweden. Since 1994 a number of small (1–2 m high) transverse debris‐charged ridges have emerged at the ice surface in the terminal zone of the glacier. This paper presents the results of a combined structural glaciological, isotopic, sedimentological and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) study of the terminal area of the glacier with the aim of understanding the evolution of these debris‐charged ridges, features which are typical of many polythermal glaciers. The ridges originate from steeply dipping (50–70°) curvilinear fractures on the glacier surface. Here, the fractures contain bands of sediment‐rich ice between 0.2 and 0.4 m thick composed of sandy gravel and diamicton, interpreted as glaciofluvial and basal glacial material, respectively. Structural mapping of the glacier from aerial photography demonstrates that the curvilinear fractures cannot be traced up‐glacier into pre‐existing structures visible at the glacier surface such as crevasses or crevasse traces. These curvilinear fractures are therefore interpreted as new features formed near the glacier snout. Ice adjacent to these fractures shows complex folding, partly defined by variations in ice facies, and partly by disseminated sediment. The isotopic composition (δ18O) of both coarse‐clear and coarse‐bubbly glacier ice facies is similar to the isotopic composition of the interstitial ice in debris layers that forms the debris‐charged ridges, implying that none of these facies have undergone any significant isotopic fractionation by the incomplete freezing of available water. The GPR survey shows strong internal reflections within the ice beneath the debris‐charged ridges, interpreted as debris layers within the glacier. Overall, the morphology and distribution of the fractures indicate an origin by compressional glaciotectonics near the snout, either at the thermal boundary, where active temperate glacier ice is being thrust over cold stagnant ice near the snout, or as a result of large‐scale recumbent folding in the glacier. Further work is required to elucidate the precise role of each of these mechanisms in elevating the basal glacial and glaciofluvial material to the ice surface.  相似文献   

16.
I. Sobota 《Polar Science》2011,5(3):327-336
This study examines the mass balance, accumulation, melt, and near-surface ice thermal structure of Irenebreen, a 4.1 km2 glacier located in northwest Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Traditional glaciological mass balance measurements by stake readings and snow surveying have been conducted annually at the glacier since 2002, yielding a mean annual net mass balance of −65 cm w.e. for the period 2002–2009. In 2009, the annual mass balance of Irenebreen was −63 cm w.e. despite above-average snow accumulation in winter. The near-surface ice temperature in the accumulation area was investigated with automatic borehole thermistors. The mean annual surface ice temperatures (September–August) of the accumulation area were −3.7 °C at 1 m depth and −3.3 °C at 10 m depth. Irenebreen is potentially polythermal, with cold ice and a temperate surface layer during summer. This temperate surface layer is influenced by seasonal changes in temperature. In winter, the temperature of all the ice is below the melting point and temperate layers are probably present in basal sections of the glacier. This supposition is supported by the presence of icings in the forefield of Irenebreen.  相似文献   

17.
Glacier mass balance and mass balance gradient are fundamentally affected by changes in glacier 3D geometry. Few studies have quantified changing mountain glacier 3D geometry, not least because of a dearth of suitable spatiotemporally distributed topographical information. Additionally, there can be significant uncertainty in georeferencing of historical data and subsequent calculations of the difference between successive surveys. This study presents multiple 3D glacier reconstructions and the associated mass balance response of Kårsaglaciären, which is a 0.89 ± 0.01 km2 mountain glacier in sub‐arctic Sweden. Reconstructions spanning 101 years were enabled by historical map digitisation and contemporary elevation and thickness surveys. By considering displacements between digitised maps via the identification of common tie‐points, uncertainty in both vertical and horizontal planes were estimated. Results demonstrate a long‐term trend of negative mass balance with an increase in mean elevation, total glacier retreat (1909–2008) of 1311 ± 12 m, and for the period 1926–2010 a volume decrease of 1.0 ± 0.3 × 10–3 km3 yr–1. Synthesising measurements of the glaciers’ past 3D geometry and ice thickness with theoretically calculated basal stress profiles explains the present thermal regime. The glacier is identified as being disproportionately fast in its rate of mass loss and relative to area, is the fastest retreating glacier in Sweden. Our long‐term dataset of glacier 3D geometry changes will be useful for testing models of the evolution of glacier characteristics and behaviour, and ultimately for improving predictions of meltwater production with climate change.  相似文献   

18.
塔里木河流域冰川变化及其对水资源影响   总被引：34，自引：1，他引：33  
在近一个世纪以来全球变暖趋势显著的背景下,1980年代中后期以来新疆等地区的降水、出山径流出现持续增加现象,冰川也呈加速萎缩状态。作者从区域冰川研究入手,研究在这种气候暖湿转变背景下,塔里木河流域冰川变化的响应及其影响。通过应用大比例尺地形图、高分辨率卫星遥感影像及航空摄影照片获得了塔里木河流域3000多条冰川1960年代初以来的变化,表明该流域近30多年来冰川呈总体萎缩状态,冰川退缩已给塔里木河流域水资源变化带来了明显的影响。  相似文献   

19.
Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 108(1):121–136, 2008

SnowModel, a physically-based snow evolution modeling system that includes four submodels—MicroMet, EnBal, SnowPack, and SnowTran-3D—was used to simulate eight full-year (1998/99 through 2005/06) evolutions of snow accumulation, blowing snow sublimation, evaporation, snow and ice surface melt, runoff, and mass changes on the entire Mittivakkat Glacier (31 km2) in southeast Greenland. Meteorological observations from two meteorological stations inside the glacier catchment were used as model input, and glaciological mass balance observations were used for model calibration (1998/99 through 2001/02) and validation (2002/03 through 2005/06) of winter snow simulations. As confirmed by observations, the spatially modeled end-of-winter snow water equivalent (SWE) accumulation increased with elevation up to 700–800 m a.s.l. in response to elevation, topography, and dominating wind direction, and maximum snow deposition occurred on the lee side of the ridge east and south of the glacier. Simulated end-of-summer cumulative runoff decreased with elevation and minimum runoff occurred on the shadowed side of the ridge east and south of the glacier. The modeled test period averaged annual mass balance was 65 mm w. eq. y?1 or ～8% more than the observed. For the simulation period, the glacier net mass balance varies from -199 to -1,834 mm w.eq. y?1, averaging -900 (±470) mm w.eq.y?1. The glacier averaged annual modeled precipitation ranged from 1,299 to 1,613 mm w.eq. y?1, evaporation and sublimation from 206 to 289 mm w.eq., and runoff from 1,531 to 2,869 mm w.eq. y?1. The model simulated Mittivakkat Glacier net loss of900 mm w.eq. y?1 contributes approximately 42% to the average simulated runoff of 2,140 mm w.eq. y?1, indicating a mean specific runoff of 67.8 l s?1 km?2.  相似文献   

20.
The ablation rate under a debris layer is very difficult to measure directly at debris-covered glaciers, because the surface is highly heterogeneous, and the ablation rate varies tremendously from place to place. Heat budget considerations with a debris layer on top of glacier ice suggested that 'thermal resistance' of the debris layer could be estimated from surface temperature and the heat fluxes at the debris surface, and the ablation rate of the underlying glacier ice from the thermal resistance and meteorological data. The method was tested at the Lirung Glacier in Langtang Valley, Nepal Himalayas, using the thermal band of LANDSAT satellite for estimating surface temperature distribution of the debris top surface. The amount of melt water thus estimated was compatible with the observed discharge data from the glacier basin for periods of the monsoon season in 1985 and the pre-monsoon to the monsoon season in 1996. The investigation also revealed that the amount of discharge was much larger than the amount of precipitation over the basin, and it was suggested that the melt water from the debris-covered glacier contributes significantly to the river flow as a result of the shrinkage of the glacier.  相似文献   

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