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1.
We report on dust measurements obtained during the seventh orbit of the Galileo spacecraft about Jupiter. The most prominent
features observed are highly time variable dust streams recorded throughout the Jovian system. The impact rate varied by more
than an order of magnitude with a 5 and 10 hour periodicity, which shows a correlation with Galileo's position relative to
the Jovian magnetic field. This behavior can be qualitatively explained by strong coupling of nanometer-sized dust to the
Jovian magnetic field. In addition to the 5 and 10 h periodicities, a longer period which is compatible with Io's orbital
period is evident in the dust impact rate. This feature indicates that Io most likely is the source of the dust streams. During
a close (3,095 km altitude) flyby at Ganymede on 5 April 1997 an enhanced rate of dust impacts has been observed, which suggests
that Ganymede is a source of ejecta particles. Within a distance of about 25 RJ(Jupiter radius, RJ= 71,492 km) from Jupiter impacts of micrometer-sized particles have been recorded which could be particles on bound orbits
about Jupiter.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
2.
The particles making up the Jovian ring may be debris which has been excavated by micrometeoroids from the surfaces of many unseen (R ? 1 km) parent bodies (or “mooms” as we will occasionally call them) residing in the ring. A distribution of particle sizes exists: large objects are sources for the small visible ring particles and also account for the absorption of charged particles noted by Pioneer; the small grains are generated by micrometeoroid impacts, by jostling collisions among different-sized particles, and by self-fracturing due to electrostatic stresses. The latter are most effective in removing surface asperities to thereby produce smooth and crudely equidimensional grains. The presence of intermediate-sized (radius of several to several hundred microns) objects is also expected; these particles will have a total area comparable to the area of the visible ring particles. The nominal size (?2 μm) of the visible particles derived from their forward-scattering characteristics is caused, at least in part, by a selection effect but may also reflect a fundamental grain size or the preferential generation of certain sizes along with the destruction of others. The tiny ring particles have short lifetimes (?102?103 years) limited by erosion due to sputtering and meteoroid impacts. Plasma drag significantly modifies orbits in ～102 years but Poynting-Robertson drag is not effective (TPR ～ 105 years) in removing debris. The ring width is influenced by the distribution of source satellites, by the initial ejection velocity off them, by electromagnetic scattering, and by solar radiation forces. In the absence of electromagnetic forces, debris will reimpact a mother satellite or collide with another particle in about 10 years. A relative drift between different-sized particles, caused by a lessened effective gravity due to the Lorentz force, will substantially shorten these times to less than a month. The ring thickness is determined by a balance between initial conditions (abetted perhaps by electromagnetic scattering) and collisional damping; existence of the “halo” over the diffuse disk compared to its relative absence over the bright ring indicates the presence of mooms in the bright ring but not in the faint disk. Small satellites (R ? 1 km) will not reaccumulate colliding dust grains whereas satellites having the size of J14 or J16 may be able to do so, depending upon their precise shape, size, density, and location. Visible ring structure could indicate separate source satellites. The particles in the faint inner disk are delivered from the bright ring by orbital evolution principally under plasma drag. The halo is comprised of small particles (～0.1 μm) partially drawn out of the faint disk by interactions with the tilted Jovian magnetic field. 相似文献
3.
This paper focuses on tenuous dust clouds of Jupiter's Galilean moons Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. In a companion paper (Srem?evi? et al., Planet. Space Sci. 51 (2003) 455-471) an analytical model of impact-generated ejecta dust clouds surrounding planetary satellites has been developed. The main aim of the model is to predict the asymmetries in the dust clouds which may arise from the orbital motion of the parent body through a field of impactors. The Galileo dust detector data from flybys at Europa, Ganymede and Callisto are compatible with the model, assuming projectiles to be interplanetary micrometeoroids. The analysis of the data suggests that two interplanetary impactor populations are most likely the source of the measured dust clouds: impactors with isotropically distributed velocities and micrometeoroids in retrograde orbits. Other impactor populations, namely those originating in the Jovian system, or interplanetary projectiles with low orbital eccentricities and inclinations, or interstellar stream particles, can be ruled out by the statistical analysis of the data. The data analysis also suggests that the mean ejecta velocity angle to the normal at the satellite surface is around 30°, which is in agreement with laboratory studies of the hypervelocity impacts. 相似文献
4.
A model for the production of the Jovian ring is proposed. The ‘visible’ ring particles are micron-sized and produced by erosive collisions between an assumed population of km-sized parent bodies and sub-micron sized magnetospheric dust particles. These small dust particles are ejected by volcanoes from Io. The observed topology of the ring is described quite well with the theory, and properties of the parent bodies are deduced. 相似文献
5.
The interaction of the Jovian energetic radiation belt electrons, and the Jovian plasma, with an ambient dust population is examined. Firstly the distribution of dust, ejected from Io, in the inner magnetosphere is calculated. Using the mass loss in submicron particles of ~13g/sec, which is required to model the intensity and shape of the Jovian ring in the model of Morfill etal. (1980b), it is possible to quantitatively calculate losses of magnetospheric ions and electrons due to direct collisions with charged dust particles as well as multiple Coulomb scattering with resultant losses in the Jovian atmosphere. It is shown that the magnitude and radial dependence of the losses are sufficient to explain the electron measurements, although the possibility that some other process may be more effective cannot be ruled out. The same dust population has, on the other hand, no significant effect on the plasma, which should therefore be transported essentially loss free, except within the Jovian ring, if there are no other processes involved. Comparison with the data shows that loss free transport outside the ring does indeed satisfy the measurement constraints. 相似文献
6.
We study central collisions between millimeter-sized dust projectiles and centimeter-sized dust targets in impact experiments. Target and projectile are dust aggregates consisting of micrometer-sized SiO2 particles. Collision velocities range up to 25 m/s. The general outcome of a collision strongly depends on the impact velocity. For collisions below 13 m/s rebound and a small degree of fragmentation occur. However, at higher collision velocities up to 25 m/s approximately 50% of the mass of the projectile rigidly sticks to the target after the collision. Thus, net growth of a body is possible in high speed collisions. This supports the idea that planetesimal formation via collisional growth is a viable mechanism at higher impact velocities. Within our set of parameters the experiments even suggest that higher impact velocities might be preferable for growth in collisions between dusty bodies. For the highest impact velocities most of the ejecta is within small dust aggregates about 500 μm in size. In detail the size distribution of ejected dust aggregates is flat for very small particles smaller than 500 μm and follows a power law for larger ejected dust aggregates with a power of −5.6±0.2. There is a sharp upper cut-off at about 1 mm in size with only a few particles being slightly larger. The ejection angle is smaller than 3° with respect to the target surface. These fast ejecta move with 40±10% of the impact velocity. 相似文献
7.
A.J. Dessler 《Icarus》1980,44(2):291-295
Theoretical arguments have been presented to the effect that both plasma and energy are supplied to the Jovian magnetosphere primarily from internal sources. If we assume that Io is the source of plasma for the Jovian magnetosphere and that outward flow of plasma from the torus is the means of drawing from the kinetic energy of rotation of Jupiter to drive magnetospheric phenomena, we can obtain a new, independent estimate of the rate of mass injection from Io into the Io plasma torus. We explicitly assume the solar wind supplies neither plasma nor energy to the Jovian magnetosphere in significant amounts. The power expended by the Jovian magnetosphere is supplied by torus plasma falling outward through the corotational-centrifugal-potential field. A lower limit to the rate of mass injection into the torus, which on the average must equal the rate of mass loss from the torus, is therefore derivable if we adopt a value for the power expended to drive the various magnetospheric phenomena. This method yields an injection rate of at least 103 kg/sec, a value in agreement with the results obtained by two other independent methods of estimating mass injection rate. If this injection rate from Io and extraction of energy from Jupiter's kinetic energy of rotation has been maintained over geologic time, then approximately 0.1% of Io's mass (principally in the form of sulfur and oxygen) has been lost to the Jovian magnetosphere, and Jupiter's spin rate has been reduced by less than 0.1%. 相似文献
8.
S. Yamamoto 《Icarus》2002,158(1):87-97
This paper reports the results of experiments on projectile impact into regolith targets at various impact angles. Copper projectiles of 240 mg are accelerated to 197 to 272 m s−1 using an electromagnetic gun. The ejecta are detected by thin Al foil targets as secondary targets, and the resulting holes on the foil are measured to derive the spatial distribution of the ejecta. The ejecta that penetrated the foil are concentrated toward the downrange azimuths of impacting projectiles in oblique impacts. In order to investigate the ejecta velocity distribution, the nondimensional volume of ejecta with velocities higher than a given value is calculated from the spatial distribution. In the case of the vertical impact of the projectile, most ejecta have velocities lower than 24% of the projectile speed (∼50 m s−1), and there are only several ejecta with velocities higher than 72 m s−1. This result confirms the existence of an upper limit to the ejection velocity in the ejecta velocity distribution (Hartmann cutoff velocity) (W. K. Hartmann, 1985, Icarus63, 69-98). On the other hand, it is found that, in the oblique impacts, there are a large number of ejecta with velocities higher than the Hartmann cutoff velocity. The relative quantity of ejecta above the Hartmann cutoff velocity increases as the projectile impact angle decreases. Taking these results with the results of S. Yamamoto and A. M. Nakamura (1997, Icarus128, 160-170) from impact experiments using an impact angle of 30°, it can be concluded that the ejecta from these regolith targets exhibit a bimodal velocity distribution. Below a few tens of m s−1, we see the expected velocity distribution of ejecta, but above this velocity we see a separate group of high-velocity ejecta. 相似文献
9.
Thomas R. McDonough 《Icarus》1975,24(4):400-406
The Jovian hydrogen torus associated with Io, that was observed by Judge and Carlson, has been found by them to be a third of a torus rather than a complete torus. It is shown that the energetic particles observed by Pioneer 10 do not ionize atomic hydrogen sufficiently fast to erode the torus as observed. It is proposed that the reason an incomplete torus exists is the presence of a corotating cold magnetospheric plasma. If this explanation is correct, the angular extent of the fractional torus is a measure of the density of the magnetospheric plasma near Io's orbit, which is found to be ～102cm?3. It is shown that such a plasma may provide an adequate input to Io, where it can recombine and escape, to form enough hydrogen atoms to explain the number of observed torus atoms. Thus the magnetospheric plasma may serve as both the source and the sink of the torus. However, while it is not difficult to make the plasma be the sink of the toroidal hydrogen, it is difficult (although perhaps possible) to self-consistently make it the source. It may be necessary to invoke some other mechanism to generate the hydrogen. 相似文献
10.
Ralph D. Lorenz 《Meteoritics & planetary science》2004,39(4):617-623
Abstract— A model for an impact ejecta landform peculiar to Saturn's moon Titan is presented. Expansion of the ejecta plume from moderate‐sized craters is constrained by Titan's thick atmosphere. Much of the plume is collimated along the incoming bolide's trajectory, as was observed for plumes from impacts on Jupiter of P/Shoemaker‐Levy‐9, but is retained as a linear, diagonal ejecta cloud, unlike on Venus where the plume “blows out.” On Titan, the blowout is suppressed because the vertically‐extended atmosphere requires a long wake to reach the vacuum of space, and the modest impact velocities mean plume expansion along the wake is slow enough to allow the wake to close off. Beyond the immediate ejecta blanket around the crater, distal ejecta is released into the atmosphere from an oblique line source: this material is winnowed by the zonal wind field to form streaks, with coarse radar‐bright particles transported less far than fine radar‐dark material. Thus, the ejecta form two distinct streaks faintly reminiscent of dual comet tails, a sharply W‐E radar‐dark one, and a less swept and sometimes comma‐shaped radar‐bright one. 相似文献
11.
《Planetary and Space Science》2006,54(9-10):911-918
As the data from space missions and laboratories improve, a research domain combining plasmas and charged dust is gaining in prominence. Our solar system provides many natural laboratories such as planetary rings, comet comae and tails, ejecta clouds around moons and asteroids, and Earth's noctilucent clouds for which to closely study plasma-embedded cosmic dust. One natural laboratory to study electromagnetically controlled cosmic dust has been provided by the Jovian dust streams and the data from the instruments which were on board the Galileo spacecraft. Given the prodigious quantity of dust poured into the Jovian magnetosphere by Io and its volcanoes resulting in the dust streams, the possibility of dusty plasma conditions exist. This paper characterizes the main parameters for those interested in studying dust embedded in a plasma with a focus on the Jupiter environment. I show how to distinguish between dust-in-plasma and dusty-plasma and how the Havnes parameter P can be used to support or negate the possibility of collective behavior of the dusty plasma. The result of applying these tools to the Jovian dust streams reveals mostly dust-in-plasma behavior. In the orbits displaying the highest dust stream fluxes, portions of orbits E4, G7, G8, C21 satisfy the minimum requirements for a dusty plasma. However, the P parameter demonstrates that these mild dusty plasma conditions do not lead to collective behavior of the dust stream particles. 相似文献
12.
Masahisa Yanagisawa Satoshi Tanaka Tatsuaki Okada Tatsuo Konno 《Earth, Moon, and Planets》1996,73(2):117-124
We monitored Jupiter with a video movie camera attached to a 1.3 m reflector during the impact event of the K fragment of D/Shoemaker-Levy 9. The camera was sensitive to visible radiation. A plume, which was generated by the impact and prominent in infrared wavelength, was not detected. Jovian images with hypothetical plumes were synthesized to examine how luminous the plume should have been to be recognized. It has been revealed that the plume was no more than twice as bright as Io in visible wavelength. 相似文献
13.
The Jovian satellites and ring are continuously bombarded by high-energy galacic cosmic rays and magnetospheric ions. Nuclear interactions will create very energetic neutrons and pions. The decay of some of these unstable particles within the Jovian magnetosphere wil result in trapped protons and ultrarelativistic electrons and positrons. Although this source is weak compared to those that yield lower-energy magnetospheric particles, it is expected to generate the most energetic Jovian particles. These processes are briefly described. 相似文献
14.
We examine the effects of Io ejecta on the surface and environment of Europa. We find that the observed sulfur on the trailing side of Europa, when interpreted as a deposit in equilibrium between implanation of, and sputtering by, corotating Io ejecta, implies a slow loss of material from Europa by sputtering. From this we infer that the spectrum of particles sputtered from water ice is soft. The quantity of observed sulfur and its confinement to the trailing hemisphere appear to exclude significant implantation and sputtering by energetic heavy ions. We also conclude that the contribution from Europa to the magnetospheric plasma (even at Europa itself) is negligible compared to the matter ejected from Io. 相似文献
15.
We address impact cratering on Io and Europa, with the emphasis on the origin of small craters on Europa as secondary to the primary impacts of comets on Io, Europa, and Ganymede. In passing we also address the origin of secondary craters generated by Zunil, a well-studied impact crater on Mars that is a plausible analog to impact craters on Io. At nominal impact rates, and taking volcanic resurfacing into account, we find that there should be 1.3 impact craters on Io, equally likely to be of any diameter between 100 m and 20 km. The corresponding model age of Europa's surface is between 60 and 100 Ma. This range of ages does not include a factor three uncertainty stemming from the uncertain sizes and numbers of comets. The mass of basaltic impact ejecta from Io to reach Europa is found to meet or exceed the micrometeoroid flux as a source of rock-forming elements to Europa's ice crust. To describe impact ejecta in more detail we adapt models for impact-generated spalls and Grady-Kipp fragments originally developed by Melosh. Our model successfully reproduces the observed size-number distributions of small craters on both Mars and Europa. However, the model predicts that a significant fraction of the 200-500 m diameter craters on Europa are not traditional secondary craters but are instead sesquinary craters caused by impact ejecta from Io that had gone into orbit about Jupiter. This prediction is not supported by observation, which implies that high speed spalls usually break up into smaller fragments that make smaller sesquinary craters. Iogenic basalts are also interesting because they provide stratigraphic horizons on Europa that in principle could be used to track historic motions of the ice, and they provide materials suitable to radiometric dating of Europa's surface. 相似文献
16.
《Planetary and Space Science》1999,47(10-11):1377-1387
The Galileo plasma wave instrument has detected intense electromagnetic wave emissions approximately centered on the second and fourth harmonics of the local proton gyrofrequency during the close equatorial flyby of Io on 7 December 1995. Their frequencies suggest these emissions are likely generated locally by an instability driven by non thermal protons. Given that this process occurs close to Io, we suggest that hydrogen-bearing compounds, escaping from Io, are broken up/ionized near this moon, thereby releasing protons. Newly-created protons are thus injected in the Jovian corotating plasma with the corotation velocity, leading to the formation of a ring in velocity space. Several electromagnetic wave–particle instabilities can be driven by a ring of newborn protons. Given that the corotating plasma is sub-Alfvénic relative to Io, the magnetosonic mode cannot be destabilized by this proton ring. The full dispersion relation is studied using the WHAMP program (Rönmark, 1982. Rep. 179. Kiruna Geophys. Inst., Kiruna, Sweden) as well as a new algorithm that allows us to fit the distribution function of newborn protons in a more realistic way. This improvement in the ring model is necessary to explain the relative narrowness of the observed spectral peaks. The measured E/B ratio is also used to identify the relevant instability and wave mode: this mode results from the coupling between the ion Bernstein and the ion cyclotron mode (IBCW). To our knowledge this mode has not yet been studied. From the instability threshold an estimate of the density of newborn protons around Io is thus given; at about 2 Io radii from the surface and 40°W longitude from the sub-Jupiter meridian, this density is found to be ≥0.5% of the local plasma density (∼4000 cm−3), namely ≥20 cm−3. Assuming a stationary pickup process and a r−n distribution of pickup protons within several Io radii of Io’s wake, this implies that more than 1026 protons/s are created around Io. The ultimate origin of these protons is an open issue. 相似文献
17.
《Planetary and Space Science》2006,54(9-10):1014-1023
Faint rings of micrometre-sized dust particles embrace many planets in the Solar system. As a rule, they are replenished by ejecta from embedded atmosphereless moons. On a number of occasions, the ejecta are generated by hypervelocity meteoroid impacts into the moons. Small ejecta fragments are then swiftly shifted into rings by an array of non-gravitational forces, e.g. radiation pressure or plasma drag. A significant fraction of ejecta mass, however, is contained in relatively big, multi-micrometre fragments which are subject to gravity only. Having escaped from the satellite, they stay close to its orbit and form a belt around planet. This belt is itself a source of ring dust through collisional disruption of its particles. Here the contributions of belts to the respective rings are estimated for selected satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. The belts under review could supply substantially more dust to rings than the direct ejecta from satellites and should be taken into account when estimating ring dust budgets. The belts are very difficult to observe, however, and some of them remain a theoretical proposition. We find an appealing evidence for the belts due to Amalthea and Thebe around Jupiter, and for the belt due to Enceladus around Saturn. 相似文献
18.
C.T. Russell 《Planetary and Space Science》2005,53(5):473-485
The Galilean moons, especially Io, affect not just their local environment but also the Jovian ionosphere at the ends of the flux tubes connected to the moons. Moreover, the mass added to the magnetosphere by Io affects much of the rest of the magnetosphere. The magnetosphere is energized by this mass-loading, powering the aurora, accelerating radiation belt particles, and generating radio emissions. This review examines how the mass-loading affects the magnetosphere and ionosphere; the differences in the interactions of Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto; and some of the kinetic phenomena associated with the interaction. 相似文献
19.
The depth and duration of energy and momentum coupling in an impact shapes the formation of the crater. The earliest stages of crater growth (when the projectile transfers its energy and momentum to the target) are unrecoverable when the event is described by late stage parameters, which collapse the initial conditions of the impact into a singular point in time and space. During the coupling phase, the details of the impact are mapped into the ejecta flow field. In this experimental study, we present new experimental and computational measurements of the ejecta distribution and crater growth extending from early times into main-stage ballistic flow for hypervelocity impacts over a range of projectile densities. Specifically, we assess the effect of projectile density on coupling depth and location in porous particulate (sand) targets. A non-invasive high-speed imaging technique is employed to capture the velocity of individual ejecta particles very early in the cratering event as a function of both time and launch position. These data reveal that the effects of early-stage coupling, such as non-constant ejection angles, manifest not only in early-time behavior but also extend to main-stage crater growth. Time-resolved comparisons with hydrocode calculations provide both benchmarking and insight into the parameters controlling the ejection process. Measurements of the launch position and metrics for the transient diameter to depth ratio as a function of time demonstrate non-proportional crater growth throughout much of excavation. Low-density projectiles couple closer to the surface, thereby leading to lower ejection angles and larger effective diameter to depth ratios. These results have implications for the ballistic emplacement of ejecta on planetary surfaces, and are essential to interpreting temporally resolved data from impact missions. 相似文献
20.
Frank SOMMER Fiona REISER Anja DUFRESNE Michael H. POELCHAU Tobias HOERTH Alex DEUTSCH Thomas KENKMANN Klaus THOMA 《Meteoritics & planetary science》2013,48(1):33-49
Abstract– Within the frame of the MEMIN research unit (Multidisciplinary Experimental and Numerical Impact Research Network), impact experiments on sandstone targets were carried out to systematically study the influence of projectile mass, velocity, and target water saturation on the cratering and ejection processes. The projectiles were accelerated with two‐stage light‐gas guns (Ernst‐Mach‐Institute) onto fine‐grained targets (Seeberger sandstone) with about 23% porosity. Collection of the ejecta on custom‐designed catchers allowed determination of particle shape, size distribution, ejection angle, and microstructures. Mapping of the ejecta imprints on the catcher surface enabled linking of the different patterns to ejection stages observed on high‐speed videos. The increase in projectile mass from 0.067 to 7.1 g correlates with an increase in the total ejected mass; ejecta angles, however, are similar in range for all experiments. The increase in projectile velocity from 2.5 to 5.1 km s?1 correlates with a total ejecta mass increase as well as in an increase in comminution efficiency, and a widening of the ejecta cone. A higher degree of water saturation of the target yields an increase in total ejecta mass up to 400% with respect to dry targets, higher ejecta velocity, and a steeper cone. These data, in turn, suggest that the reduced impedance contrast between the quartz grains of the target and the pores plays a primary role in the ejecta mass increase, while vaporization of water determines the ejecta behavior concerning ejecta velocity and particle distribution. 相似文献