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1.
The dry valley pattern of the Chiltern Hills is divided into 55 third order drainage basins which are grouped morphometrically into five groups. The character and distribution of the groups are determined mainly by the lithology of surface deposits and the structure of the underlying Chalk. No evidence has been found for different drainage patterns on the parts of the dipslope equivalent to the ‘Mio-Pliocene peneplain’ and ‘Plio-Pleistocene marine platform’ of Wooldridge and Linton (1955), nor for superimposition of drainage from covers of Plio-Pleistocene or Palaeogene sediments.  相似文献   

2.
Soil mapping and soil profile studies on the Chalk of south-east England outline the distribution and origin of superficial deposits more clearly than hitherto, and do not support the widely accepted history of landscape development proposed by Wooldridge and Linton (1955). Deposits formed by weathering and periglacial disturbance of a thin cover of basal Tertiary deposits occur on all parts of the dip-slope interfluves, suggesting that the exhumed sub-Tertiary surface, somewhat lowered by dissolution of the Chalk, is much more extensive than supposed by Wooldridge and Linton. The evidence for high Plio-Pleistocene sea levels is reviewed, with particular reference to their limited effect on soils and superficial deposits and on the morphology of the dip-slope. Alternative explanations for the so-called Calabrian marine platform and cliff are considered. Emphasis is placed on periglacial processes in the later Pleistocene denudation of the Chalk, and on the protective role played by the cover of disturbed basal Tertiary sediment.  相似文献   

3.
A petrological re-examination of the deposits that Wooldridge and Linton used as evidence for a Plio-Pleistocene marine transgression on the Chiltern Hills indicates that many are fluvial and some have been reworked in a periglacial climate. However, those from Little Heath and Rothamsted, Hertfordshire and Lane End, Buckinghamshire are confirmed as marine and Plio-Pleistocene. Subsidence during the Pleistocene is suggested by the northeasterly decline in height of the few truly marine deposits.  相似文献   

4.
Within the post-Cenomanian Chalk sequence of central eastern England about 20 thin persistent marl horizons occur. These marls contain from 30 to 65% non-carbonate material the bulk of which is composed of a well crystallised Mg-rich smectite with a notable paucity of illite and quartz. The Chalk matrix above and below the marls contains up to 2.0% of non-carbonate matter which again is dominated by the presence of an Mg-rich smectite but which contains a larger proportion of illite and quartz than occurs in the marls. For both sets of non-carbonate materials the excellent crystallinity and Mg-rich nature of the smectite strongly suggest that it was formed by the in situ alteration of an aeolian transported volcanic ash, i.e. it is a true bentonite. Quartz and illite in the Chalk matrix are probably detrital components.Relative to a standard shale, non-carbonate materials from the Chalk marl horizons exhibit a highly anomalous trace element pattern with accentuated levels of Zr, Nb and Th but depleted levels of Ba, Rb and K. This trace element chemistry corroborates a volcanogenic origin for the smectite insofar as it is not explicable in terms of any realistic sedimentary process. The chemistry is best interpreted in terms of the magnetic processes responsible for the formation of the original ash precursor of the marls. It appears that this precursor had a pantelleritic composition and therefore originated from a source overlying an area where incipient continental rifting was taking place.Micromorphological examinations prove that residues from the Chalk marls contain small amounts of pyroclastic debris, including pumice and fragments of sideromelane glass. The morphology of the fragments suggests that the volcanic eruptions responsible for the ejection of the original ash into the air were of the shallow-water phreatomagmatic (Surtseyan) type.The distribution of marls in the Chalk of eastern England suggests that the ashfalls responsible for their origin were of the tropospheric type and were drawn by westerly winds from a centre to the west or northwest of mainland Britain. Of the numerous volcanic centres that lie in offshore areas to the west, the Anton Dohrn Seamount in the Rockall Trough appears to a likely centre of origin for the ashfalls. However, ashfalls responsible for the formation of the traces of smectite in the Chalk matrix were probably of the general background (stratospheric) type and may have been drawn from more distant centres.Volcanism at the Anton Dohrn Seamount was related to tensional effects in the continental crust that immediately preceded the formation of the Rockall Trough and the separation of Greenland from northwestern Europe during Tertiary times. Activity at the centre, and Cretaceous bentonites derived therefrom, therefore represent the earliest stages in the development of the Thulean igneous province.  相似文献   

5.
The distribution and deposits of British and Scandinavian Middle Pleistocene ice sheets in eastern England remain problematic. A new till provenancing technique based on Chalk micropalaeontology is described, with the object of refining understanding of the ice sheet which deposited the Lowestoft Formation till (Anglian/Elsterian) and its relationship to Scandinavian ice sheets. The technique involves extracting foraminifera from Chalk erratics and till matrix obtained from stratigraphically controlled till sections and comparing their micropalaeontology with that of Upper Cretaceous Chalk bedrock. Application to the Lowestoft Formation till of eastern England suggests that current models of ice‐flow in this region require revision involving reinstatement of some earlier ideas. Chalk provenance data indicate an initial phase of glaciation, with ice streaming southwards across eastern England before fanning across East Anglia from the position of the Fen basin. This was followed by a later phase in which the main southward trajectory of ice‐flow was located further east in the North Sea Basin, but again with ice fanning out across East Anglia. These ice‐flow trajectories imply constraint of the British ice sheet by Scandinavian ice. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

6.
In eastern England the Chalk aquifer is covered by extensive Pleistocene deposits which influence the hydraulic conditions and hydrochemical nature of the underlying aquifer. In this study, the results of geophysical borehole logging of groundwater temperature and electrical conductivity and depth sampling for major ion concentrations and stable isotope compositions (δ18O and δ2H) are interpreted to reveal the extent and nature of the effective Chalk aquifer of north Norfolk. It is found that the Chalk aquifer can be divided into an upper region of fresh groundwater, with a Cl concentration of typically less than 100 mg l−1, and a lower region of increasingly saline water. The transition between the two regions is approximately 50 m below sea-level, and results in an effective aquifer thickness of 50–60 m in the west of the area, but less than 25 m where the Eocene London Clay boundary is met in the east of the area. Hydrochemical variations in the effective aquifer are related to different hydraulic conditions developed in the Chalk. Where the Chalk is confined by low-permeability Chalky Boulder Clay, isotopically depleted groundwater (δ18O less than −7.5‰) is present, in contrast to those areas of unconfined Chalk where glacial deposits are thin or absent (δ18O about −7.0‰). The isotopically depleted groundwater is evidence for groundwater recharge during the late Pleistocene under conditions when mean surface air temperatures are estimated to have been 4.5°C cooler than at the present day, and suggests long groundwater residence times in the confined aquifer. Elevated molar Mg:Ca ratios of more than 0.2 resulting from progressive rock-water interaction in the confined aquifer also indicate long residence times. A conceptual hydrochemical model for the present situation proposes that isotopically depleted groundwater, occupying areas where confined groundwater dates from the late Pleistocene, is being slowly modified by both diffusion and downward infiltration of modem meteoric water and diffusive mixing from below with an old saline water body.  相似文献   

7.
The Chalk aquifer is one of the main sources of water in South East England. The unsaturated zone in the aquifer plays an important role controlling the time and magnitude of recharge and is major pathway for contaminant transport to the water table. A range of previous work has addressed flow processes in the Chalk unsaturated zone, but physical understanding is still incomplete. Here we present the results of a study on flow mechanism in the Chalk unsaturated zone using a combination of statistical analysis and novel laboratory methods. The study was undertaken at three sites (North Heath Barn [NHB], Pyecombe East [PE], and Preston Park [PP]) on the Chalk of the Brighton block, South East England. Daily and hourly time series data of groundwater level and rainfall were correlated. The results show that a slower groundwater level response to rainfall occurs during dry seasons (summer and autumn) when the amount of effective rainfall is less than 4 mm/day, with a thicker and drier unsaturated zone. A faster response occurs during wet seasons (winter and spring) when the daily effective rainfall exceeds 4 mm/day with a thinner and wetter unsaturated zone. Periods of very rapid response (within 15 h) were observed during wet seasons at NHB and PE sites, with unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (Ku) inferred to reach 839 mm/day. A slower response was observed at an urbanized site (PP) as a result of reduction in direct recharge due to reduced infiltration, due to presences of impermeable infrastructure covering the area around PP borehole. Laboratory measurements of Ku of the Chalk matrix using a geotechnical centrifuge show variation from 4.27 to 0.07 mm/day, according to the level of saturation. Thus, the rapid responses cannot be linked to matrix flow only but indicate the contribution of fracture and karstic flow processes in conducting water.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract

The effects of changes in climate on aquifer storage and groundwater flow to rivers have been investigated using an idealized representation of the aquifer/river system. The generalized aquifer/river model can incorporate spatial variability in aquifer transmissivity and is applied with parameters characteristic of Chalk and Triassic sandstone aquifers in the United Kingdom, and is also applicable to other aquifers elsewhere. The model is run using historical time series of recharge, estimated from observed rainfall and potential evaporation data, and with climate inputs perturbed according to a number of climate change scenarios. Simulations of baseflow suggest large proportional reductions at low flows from Chalk under high evaporation change scenarios. Simulated baseflow from the slower responding Triassic sandstone aquifer shows more uniform and less severe reductions. The change in hydrological regime is less extreme for the low evaporation change scenario, but remains significant for the Chalk aquifer.  相似文献   

9.
The Eagle Ford Shale of Central and South Texas is currently of great interest for oil and gas exploration and production. Laboratory studies show that the Eagle Ford Shale is anisotropic, with a correlation between anisotropy and total organic carbon. Organic materials are usually more compliant than other minerals present in organic‐rich shales, and their shapes and distribution are usually anisotropic. This makes organic materials an important source of anisotropy in organic‐rich shales. Neglecting shale anisotropy may lead to incorrect estimates of rock and fluid properties derived from inversion of amplitude versus offset seismic data. Organic materials have a significant effect on the PP and PS reflection amplitudes from the Austin Chalk/Upper Eagle Ford interface, the Upper Eagle Ford/Lower Eagle Ford interface, and the Lower Eagle Ford/Buda Limestone interface. The higher kerogen content of the Lower Eagle Ford compared with that of the Upper Eagle Ford leads to a negative PP reflection amplitude that dims with offset, whereas the PS reflection coefficient increases in magnitude with increasing offset. The PP and PS reflection coefficients at the Austin Chalk/Upper Eagle Ford interface, the Upper Eagle Ford/Lower Eagle Ford interface, and the Lower Eagle Ford/Buda Limestone interface all increase in magnitude with increasing volume fraction of kerogen.  相似文献   

10.
Double-packer injection tests have been carried out in a borehole in the Chalk of Hampshire and a borehole in the Permian Penrith Sandstone of Cumbria, England. The tests have been supplemented by borehole logging and television inspections and by laboratory measurements on cores. A new mathematical treatment has enabled results to be calculated for injection test intervals containing fissures. In both formations, transmissivity immediately around the borehole is dominated by a few major fissures. In the Penrith Sandstone there is good agreement between intergranular hydraulic conductivity measurements and packer-test results in the portions of the borehole which do not contain major fissures. In the Chalk, the packer-test values are always higher than the intergranular measurements, suggesting that some degree of fissuring is present throughout.  相似文献   

11.
Cenozoic basin-forming processes in northwestern Kyushu were studied on the basis of geological and geophysical data. Gravity anomaly analysis delineated four sedimentary basins in the study area: Goto-nada, Nishisonogi, Amakusa-nada, and Shimabara. Borehole stratigraphy and reflection seismic interpretation suggest that the Goto-nada Basin was subdivided into the Paleogene and Plio-Pleistocene depocenters (Goto-nada 1 and 2). In the Paleogene, Amakusa-nada Basin was rapidly subsiding together with the Shimabara Basin as part of a large graben. Goto-nada 1 and Nishisonogi basins belonged to another depositional area. After stagnant subsidence stage in the early Miocene, the study area became a site of basaltic activity (since 10 Ma) and vigorous subsidence in the Plio-Pleistocene. Goto-nada 2 Basin is accompanied with numerous east–west active faults, and separated from the Amakusa-nada Basin by a northeast– southwest basement high, Nomo Ridge. Plio-Pleistocene subsidence of the Amakusa-nada Basin is related with low-angle normal faulting on the eastern flank of the Nomo Ridge. Shimabara Basin is a composite volcano-tectonic depression which is studded by east–west faults. Focal mechanism on active faults suggests transtensional stress regime in the study area.  相似文献   

12.
The significance of flow in the matrix of the Chalk unsaturated zone, in comparison with flow in fractures, has been the subject of much debate. In this article, important elements of the literature are discussed in detail and several simple modelling analyses based on steady-state flow are presented. A study of the sensitivity of solute spreading to fracture spacing in models that ignore matrix flow shows that this latter assumption is generally incompatible with observed solute profiles, unless unrealistically small fracture spacings are assumed. The effect of air phase continuities (e.g. bedding planes) on matrix flow has also been examined. These discontinuities are frequently interrupted by points of connectivity between matrix blocks. An issue therefore is the relationship between connectivity and its effect on inter-block conductance. A simple analysis of the Laplace equation shows that just 1% connectivity represents an effective pathway equivalent to 18% of the local rock hydraulic conductivity. Obviously, when there is no fracture flow, solute spreading is significantly reduced. However, dual permeability model simulations show that matrix flow reduces solute spreading in the presence of persistent fracture flow. All of the above studies suggest that flow in the matrix of the Chalk unsaturated zone is significant and that ignoring it may result in a serious misunderstanding of the system.  相似文献   

13.
Summary The present paper deals with the derivation of the intensity of the geomagnetic field in the Plio-Pleistocene, Central Europe. The intensity was derived from the thermo-remanence of porcellanites and palaeo-slags. These rocks represent a common product of intense thermal alteration of loams due to spontaneous combustion of coal seams. Porcellanites and palaeo-slags show outstanding palaeomagnetic properties, their remanent magnetization is of thermo-remanent origin and they were mineralogically stabilized under natural conditions in the geological past, during the coal combustion. It was found, that the intensity of the geomagnetic field during the Plio-Pleistocene oscillated about the value of the present-day intensity.  相似文献   

14.
Controls on the spatio‐temporal extent of groundwater flooding are poorly understood, despite the long duration of groundwater flood events and distinct social and economic impacts. We developed a novel approach using statistical analysis of groundwater level hydrographs and impulse response functions (IRFs) and applied it to the 2013/2014 Chalk groundwater flooding in the English Lowlands. We proposed a standardized index of groundwater flooding which we calculated for monthly groundwater levels for 26 boreholes in the Chalk. We grouped these standardized series using k‐means cluster analysis and cross‐correlated the cluster centroids with the Standardized Precipitation Index accumulated over time intervals between 1 and 60 months. This analysis reveals 2 spatially coherent groups of standardized hydrographs that responded to precipitation over different timescales. We estimated IRF models of the groundwater level response to effective precipitation for 3 boreholes in each group. The IRF models corroborate the Standardized Precipitation Index analysis showing different response functions between the groups. We applied identical effective precipitation inputs to each of the IRF models and observed differences between the hydrographs from each group. It is suggested this is due to the hydrogeological properties of the Chalk and of overlying relatively low permeability superficial deposits (recent unconsolidated sediments overlying the bedrock, such as clays and tills), which are extensive over 1 of the groups. The overarching controls on groundwater flood response are concluded to be a complex combination of antecedent conditions, rainfall, and catchment hydrogeological properties. These controls should be taken into consideration when anticipating and managing future groundwater flood events. The approach presented is generic and parsimonious and can be easily applied where sufficient groundwater level and rainfall data are available.  相似文献   

15.
A simple process‐based approach to predict regional‐scale loading of nitrate at the water table was implemented in a GIS for Great Britain. This links a nitrate input function, unsaturated zone thickness, and lithologically dependent rate of nitrate unsaturated zone travel to estimate arrival time of nitrate at the water table. The nitrate input function is the loading at the base of the soil and has been validated using unsaturated zone porewater profiles. The unsaturated zone thickness uses groundwater levels based on regional‐scale observations infilled by interpolated river base levels. Estimates of the rate of unsaturated zone travel are attributed from regional‐scale hydrogeological mapping. The results indicate that peak nitrate loading may have already arrived at the water table for many aquifers, but that it has not where the unsaturated zone is relatively thick There are contrasting outcomes for the two main aquifers which have similar unsaturated zone velocities, the predominantly low relief Permo‐Triassic sandstones, and the Chalk, which forms significant topographic features. For about 60% of the Chalk, the peak input has not yet reached the water table and will continue to arrive over the next 60 years. The methodology is readily transferable and provides a robust method for estimating peak arrival time for any diffuse conservative pollutant where an input function can be defined at a regional scale and requires only depth to groundwater and a hydrogeological classification. The methodology is extendable in that if additional information is available this can easily be incorporated into the model scheme. British Geology Survey © NERC 2011. Hydrological Process © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd  相似文献   

16.
Paleomagnetic results from the northern arm of Sulawesi show that the arm has been subjected to a clockwise rotation of more than 90° and that its rotational motion began no later than the middle Miocene. The mean direction showing a normal polarity at the Eocene to the early Miocene isD = 98.0° andI = 6.9°. A declination value ofD = 50.1° obtained from Miocene rocks indicates a transition stage of the rotational motion. The datum from Plio-Pleistocene volcanics isD = ?4.6° andI = ?9.3°. This suggests that the rotational motion terminated before the initiation of volcanic activity during the Plio-Pleistocene.  相似文献   

17.
Channel change to regulated flows along large lowland rivers with cohesive bank materials has been investigated on the lower Welsh Dee, including the tidally influenced reach. Reduction of channel width has involved the formation of a 5–40m wide discontinuous bench, often linking ‘point’ and ‘concave’ locations. Map evidence shows that wide benches occur where historically the channel had migrated laterally; narrow benches were found at stable channel locations. Auger cores of the bench deposits clearly differentiated the two contrasting depositional environments within meandering rivers: ‘point bench’ and ‘concave bench’. Around an individual bend a morphologically continuous bench showed a gradient in sediment characteristics from coarser sediments (point locations) to finer organic deposits (concave locations); it also showed a topographic gradient, gaining 0.5m in elevation around the bend suggesting that bench accretion at concave locations is faster than at point locations in fluvially dominated reaches. Such patterns are suggested to have important implications for riparian ecosystems. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

18.
Off the southern coast of Hokkaido the Hidaka-oki (offshore Hidaka) basin has developed on the western flank of a collision suture under the influence of long-standing compressional plate motion and provoked tectonic stresses around the northwestern Pacific rim throughout the late Cenozoic. The basin forming history of the Japan arc and Kuril arc collision zone is described on the basis of seismic reflection data interpretation. We identify two stages of basin formation: the older (late Oligocene-Miocene) faulted en echelon graben (pull-apart basin) and younger (Plio-Pleistocene) regional downwarping. Paleoenvironmental changes recorded within the fore-arc sediments indicate that the older basin filled up by the late Miocene. We inferred the volumes of the distinctive basins from the depth-conversion of seismic data, which suggest episodic uplifts and massive erosion of the Hidaka Mountains in the middle-late Miocene and the Plio-Pleistocene. Estimated sediment supply rates into the basins have a similar level for the both stages. Cause of an episodic uplift in the older stage is attributed to the delayed opening of the Japan Sea. The eastern Eurasian margin underwent N-S right-lateral faulting at 25 Ma as a result of rifting of the Kuril back-arc basin. Formation of the Japan Sea back-arc basin since the early Miocene (ca. 20 Ma) caused eastward motion of the western Hokkaido block and transpressive regime along the pre-existing N-S shear deformation zone.  相似文献   

19.
A layered deterministic N-leaching model, IMPACT, has been calibrated using data from two study sites on the unconfined Chalk aquilfer of East Anglia, UK. The model predicts nitrogen species movement resulting from the application of sewage sludges and fertilizers to arable land for different vegetation-soil-hydrogeological conditions. One site received sludge in the form of digested sewage cake (DSC) for the first time during the study period, whilst the other site had over 15 years history of liquid undigested sludge (LUS) applications at 3 year intervals. Site data included: 3-monthly concentration profiles at 0.3 m intervals to depths of up to 6 m for N-species and chloride; unsaturated potential measurements; water level and saturated groundwater solute concentrations, fertilizer and sludge input; daily recharge, and soil/chalk type and moisture content. The observed average movement rate for nitrate peaks in the Lower Chalk, measured at one site, was 0.2 m year−2. Leachate peaks were not observed annually but approximately every third year, being associated with large sludge applications and ploughing of grass crops. Significant correlation between observed and modelled nitrate profiles in soil and chalk were obtained which demonstrated applications. The relationship between crop demand, application times of fertilizers and sludge, nitrate availability and recharge was shown strongly to control the shape of nitrate profiles in the soil and chalk and the quantity of nitrate leached tochalk. The change in hydrogeological conditions at the soil-chalk contact and associated potential for denitrification was also shown to exert a significant control on the shape of the nitrate profile. Following calibration, different arable crop and sludge application regimes were examined for a 6 year period and ranked according to their nitrate leaching risk. Of the modelled cereal farming scenarios, the crop/sludge regime giving the least nitrate leaching was a late autumn surface spread application of DSC followed by winter cereals, while highest nitrate leaching was generated by an autumn injection of LUS followed by spring cereals. Field and modelled results may be used in the development of sludge disposal policies to arable land particularly with regard to sludge types, application times, and following crop types and fertilizer requirements. Overall, observed and model data demonstrate the importance of examining nitrate leaching as a continuum from the soil through the chalk to the water table.  相似文献   

20.
A field tracer test performed under natural flow conditions at the Twin Lake test site, Chalk River Laboratories of the Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. in Chalk River, Ontario, Canada, using tritium and three herbicides (Chlortoluron, Terbuthylazine, and Pendimethalin) was interpreted using the dispersion equation with a combined reaction model. The reaction model couples an instantaneous equilibrium reaction governed by a linear adsorption isotherm with a reversible or irreversible kinetic reaction of the first order, and decay. An improved interpretation method consists of a simultaneous fitting of theoretical concentration and mass-recovery curves to the experimental data, which leads to a more reliable determining of reaction models and improves the accuracy of fitting. Tritium served as the reference tracer to determine the flow velocity, dispersivity, and the recovery of the herbicides. Chlortoluron was slightly delayed by equilibrium exchange with strongly reduced concentration due to an irreversible kinetic reaction and/or decay. Terbuthilazine was slightly delayed by equilibrium exchange, with strongly reduced concentration due to a reversible kinetic reaction with some influence of decay. A strong equilibrium reaction and a strong reversible kinetic reaction without degradation governed the transport of Pendimethalin, reducing considerably its concentration. The results obtained show that simulations based only on Kd and decay constant, especially if these parameters are found in the laboratory, may considerably differ from those performed with reaction parameters determined in properly performed field tests. The dominant reaction types, and the values of parameters found in the study, supply useful information on the transport of the investigated herbicides in sandy aquifers under natural flow conditions.  相似文献   

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