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1.
《中国科学:地球科学》2020,(7)
地表下行短波辐射的估算对全球辐射平衡及气候变化研究具有重要的意义.文章从卫星载荷、反演算法和发展趋势等方面,回顾和总结了近十年来地表下行短波辐射的相关研究.到达地表的短波辐射受大气和陆表参数的双重影响.最近的研究对影响地表下行短波辐射的因素给予了更细致的考虑,例如通过提升云微物理参数的反演精度,降低云层引入的不确定性,以及考虑气溶胶、复杂地形和高反照率地表(如冰雪覆盖区)对地表下行短波辐射估算的影响等.此外,文章还对当前地表下行短波辐射估算的四类主要方法(经验法、参数化法、查找表法和机器学习法)的精度和优缺点进行了对比分析.未来需要提高云、雾霾、水汽等大气参数及复杂地形和亮地表的反照率等陆表参数的计算精度,有机结合机器学习和其他方法,利用新一代静止卫星和极轨卫星资料生产高时空分辨率地表下行短波辐射产品,推进辐射产品在陆面水文模型和气候模式中的应用. 相似文献
2.
《中国科学:地球科学》2017,(12)
中短波红外同时含有来自太阳反射和大气发射的能量,关于该波段的大气辐射传输计算是光学遥感领域一项基础性和应用性很强的工作,国内研究并不多见.本文基于累加法,考虑了有限薄层条件下太阳直射反射、多次散射、大气发射三项基本因素的近似计算,构建了可以同时处理太阳散射和大气发射并存的中短波红外大气辐射传输计算模型.同国际通用的DISTORT模型比较了夜晚单层云、白天多层气溶胶、水云冰云双层云以及多层云、气溶胶同时存在4种场景下的计算精度.结果显示:除个别通道外绝对偏差均小于2×10~(-6)K,同样条件下计算速度是DISORT算法的2~3倍.利用该模型对影响计算精度的4个因素模拟分析显示:在2230~2400cm~(-1)强吸收带大气热发射辐射有很大的贡献,太阳入射辐射可以忽略;在2400~2580cm~(-1)窗区波段,忽略太阳辐射可以引入几十K的误差;采用层平均温度简化热辐射计算,在强吸收波段计算误差相对较大;基于单次散射假设的累加法最小光学厚度值越小,计算误差越小.满足计算精度需求条件下可以考虑采用大气分层平均热辐射简化、选择合适最小光学厚度值,以提高计算效率.该研究构建的自主辐射传输计算模型,将在处理国产星载高光谱仪器的资料模拟、反演、同化中发挥作用. 相似文献
3.
改进的基于订正ALPHA差值谱的TES算法 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
与可见光遥感不同, 热红外传感器测得的辐射亮度值是温度和发射率的函数, 因此, 对于热红外遥感, 温度和发射率的分离是一个关键问题. 热红外地表温度反演需要考虑的另一个问题是地表反射的大气下行辐射订正, 由于该项与地表发射率紧密联系在一起, 在地表发射率未知的情况下, 该项很难消去. 研究从普朗克方程的维恩近似出发, 引入Li和Becker等提出的大气下行辐射修正项, 以此为基础, 推导出与温度无关的改进ALPHA差值谱, 并进一步提出消除维恩近似影响的修正项. 在上述工作基础上, 借鉴ALPHA导出发射率法和ASTER TES算法的优点, 提出改进的基于订正ALPHA差值谱的TES算法(ICADS TES). 由于算法采用多光谱反演技术, 并且算法中包含波段差值、比值操作, 因而可以部分消除大气、仪器噪声等的影响, 具有良好的抗干扰能力. 采用不同大气条件、下垫面类型、地表温度组合的数值模拟实验表明, 算法具有很宽的适用范围和稳定性, 反演的温度精度一般在0~1.5 K之间, 平均发射率精度在0~0.015之间. 算法反演温度产品与ASTER数据下载中心 (Earth Observing System Data Gateway, EDG)提供的地表温度产品相比, 相关性非常好, 相关系数接近1.0, 产品直方图分布基本一致.
与现有发射率温度分离算法相比, ICADS TES算法的优点是适用的温度和下垫面范围宽, 不需要诸如地表分类、发射率方向性等先验信息支持, 计算结果不受参数设置影响, 更为客观. 由于该算法不需要下垫面类型先验信息支持, 可以避免其他算法中出现的因地表误分类、混合像元等问题引起的反演误差. 与作者此前提出的基于订正ALPHA差值谱的TES算法(CADS TES)相比, 算法考虑了大气下行辐射的影响, 在大气辐射特性已知的条件下, 可以获得更好的反演结果. 相似文献
4.
鲁西北地区鱼塘水体反射率 总被引：2，自引：2，他引：0
太阳短波辐射反射率与水体理化特性关系密切,鱼塘水体除具有一般水体反射率特性外,还与鱼塘澡浮游植物一道量存在的良好的负相关。在一定温度条件下,浮游植物的生长速度与光合有效辐射呈正相关,而随着浮游植物的增加,又降低了太阳辐射的反射效应,从而水体对光合有效辐射的吸收,随着浮游植物的增加而增加。 相似文献
5.
《中国科学:地球科学》2018,(11)
近年来,伴随污染和城市化进程的加剧,气溶胶辐射效应对城市边界层的影响日益显著.文章以北京地区一次冬季污染过程为例,采用中尺度数值预报模式,在优化辐射方案中气溶胶垂直廓线的基础上验证了模式的有效性,分析了气溶胶对辐射和边界层的影响过程,最后通过敏感性试验探究了气溶胶、城市化和气象要素间的相互关系.结果表明:(1)优化后的模式可以较好地模拟北京地区温度场、湿度场、风场的分布特征.(2)气溶胶在大气中通过削减到达地面的入射短波辐射使地表温度降低,通过对辐射的吸收或后向散射作用,使高层温度升高,温度场的变化使层结稳定性增强,从而减少近地层的能量输送,使边界层高度下降.(3)随着气溶胶光学厚度的增加,乡村地区最易变为稳定层结,郊区较易变为稳定层结,城区最难变为稳定层结,且气溶胶辐射效应、城市下垫面以及二者的共同作用是影响城市边界层气象要素变化的主要原因. 相似文献
6.
小尺度深凹地形大气边界层流场演变过程的非静力数值模拟研究 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
针对小尺度深凹地形的特点,建立了一个高分辨的、非静力的二维边界层模式,采用能量（Ｅ－ε）闭合方案,考虑了太阳短波辐射及其在地表面的不均匀分布,地－气系统的长波辐射、潜热和感热输送,以及地表面与土壤层的热传导物理过程。利用该模式。模拟了某深凹露天矿实际地形上的大气边界层流场的演变过程。 相似文献
7.
地表土壤热通量是地表能量平衡的重要组成部分,对地表蒸散发的估算至关重要.利用土壤温湿度廓线观测资料基于热扩散方程计算地表土壤热通量,并通过冻土融化前后土壤液态水含量变化估算土壤含冰量,分析了土壤含冰量对土壤热通量的影响,旨在分析黑河流域典型下垫面(高山草地、农田和森林)地表土壤热通量的时空变化特征.研究结果表明:(1)黑河流域不同下垫面的地表土壤热通量有明显的日变化差异,日最大值时刻提前净辐射通量几分钟至几小时不等,这与土壤质地、湿度、热属性和植被覆盖度有关;(2)净辐射通量有显著的季节变化,一般夏季达最大值,冬季最小,地表土壤热通量也有明显的季节变化,但并不总是与净辐射通量变化保持一致,春季达最大值,夏季由于植被覆盖的原因反而降低;(3)地表土壤热通量占净辐射通量的比例因季节及下垫面不同而有差异,1月份月平均比值分别为:阿柔25.6%、盈科22.9%和关滩4.3%,7月份月平均比值分别为:阿柔2.3%、盈科1.6%和关滩0.3%;(4)冬季考虑了冰的热容量使得土壤热容量增加,土壤热存储增加,从而由热扩散方程计算的地表土壤热通量增加,使得能量平衡闭合率提高了4.3%. 相似文献
8.
《中国科学:地球科学》2015,(1)
中低分辨率卫星反照率产品反映了局地与全球尺度地表吸收太阳短波辐射的能力,在气候变化与能量平衡研究中具有重要应用.卫星产品的精度通常基于地面观测值进行验证,而中低分辨率卫星反照率产品的验证需面对卫星与地面观测尺度的差异这一难题.引入高分辨率反照率作为尺度转换桥梁是一种常用验证策略,但高分辨率反照率数据本身的误差,以及它与地面观测、中低分辨率产品的互匹配都可能给验证结果带来不确定性.本文验证策略对这些不确定性进行了控制:以不确定性最小原则设计地面采样策略,用地面观测值对30 m分辨率反照率(用国产HJ-1a/b卫星数据反演得到)进行了校正,用校正后的30 m反照率升尺度后,选择不确定性更小的像元评价中低分辨率反照率的精度.以中国黑河流域中游为研究区开展了对GLASS和MODIS两种1 km分辨率反照率产品的验证试验.验证结果表明,尺度转换后的HJ反照率可以精确的检验低分辨率反照率产品的精度,但是必须考虑验证过程中的不确定性,并在验证时排除不确定性过大的像元. 相似文献
9.
近年来城市化和大气污染对辐射收支的影响日益显著.本研究利用2013—2014年中国科学院大气物理研究所325m铁塔、南郊观象台、密云气象塔、上甸子区域大气本底站四个观测站点的辐射及自动站气象要素数据,采用南郊观象台的能见度资料将观测数据分为清洁天和污染天,并进行类比分析,以1月份为例,研究了北京地区大气污染和城郊差异对辐射收支的影响.结果表明:(1)从月平均值来看,各站污染天入射短波辐射均小于清洁天,衰减最大可达55.8W·m~(-2),直接辐射亦然,衰减最大可达161.1W·m~(-2),散射辐射相反,增加最大值为72.2W·m~(-2);长波辐射污染天大于清洁天,向下向上长波辐射增加最大值分别为85.0 W·m~2和70.0 W·m~(-2),且长波辐射的衰减与污染物浓度和大气温度相关;净辐射白天污染天小于清洁天,夜间相反.(2)从各站的对比可知,大气污染对入射短波辐射的衰减,南部郊区(13.2%)大于北部城区(7.4%),与北京地区"南北两重天"的污染物分布特征一致;且污染物对长短波辐射的影响呈现了从城区到郊区衰减率依次减小的现象.本研究为大气污染与气象条件的相互作用研究提供了观测基础. 相似文献
10.
在气候模式中,传统的层积云参数化方案(简称LTS方案)高估了自由大气湿绝热过程所引起的垂直温度梯度的作用.在Wood和Bretherton提出的"估算逆温"(EIS)基础上,本文基于卫星资料构建了一个改良的诊断层积云方案,旨在改进当前广为使用的LTS方案.通过将EIS层积云方案引入大气环流模式GAMIL2.0中,并与传统方案进行对比试验发现,EIS层积云方案能有效地改善GAMIL2.0对东亚-西北太平洋季风区乃至全球云-辐射气候特征的模拟能力,一定程度地纠正了模式原来存在的中高纬度净(短波)云辐射强迫模拟偏弱的现象,而该偏差在当前许多模式中普遍存在.此改进与EIS层积云方案合理处理自由大气的温度层结有关.EIS层积云方案亦显著改进了GAMIL2.0对东亚-西北太平洋季风区云辐射年际变率的模拟能力.加入EIS层积云方案后,模式较好地模拟出了ENSO年冬春季东亚边缘海域的净云辐射正异常、海表入射短波正异常和层云量负异常.究其原因是EIS层积云方案比传统方案对海表温度异常的扰动更敏感.海表温度异常通过EIS层积云方案在对流层低层强迫出更强的云量距平,并通过改变加热率和垂直速度影响整个对流层,最终改进模式对云辐射强迫和地表入射短波通量年际变率的模拟.EIS层积云方案还增强了模式对El Ni?o年冬春季节西北太平洋异常反气旋以及东亚降水异常的模拟效果. 相似文献
11.
湖泊模型为数值天气预报模型提供热量通量、水汽通量和动量通量等下边界条件,但是不同时间尺度上湖泊水热通量变化的控制因子不同,因此有必要对湖泊模型进行多时间尺度上的离线评估.本文利用2012-2016年太湖中尺度通量网避风港站的气象资料和辐射数据驱动CLM4-LISSS模型(Community Land Model version 4-Lake,Ice,Snow and Sediment Simulator),并与涡度相关观测(Eddy Covariance,EC)结果进行对比,以年平均潜热通量模拟结果最佳为目标调整了模式中的消光系数、粗糙度长度方案,研究了该模型从半小时到年尺度上对湖表温度和水热通量的模拟性能.结果表明:模型对湖表温度的模拟在各时间尺度上均比较理想,但是模拟的日较差较小;从半小时到年尺度上潜热通量的变化趋势都能被很好地模拟出来,但在季节尺度上,潜热通量的模拟出现了秋冬季偏高、春夏季偏低的情况,季节变化模拟不准确.湖表温度和潜热通量模拟偏差的原因可能是消光系数的参数化方案.相比之下,感热通量尽管年际变化趋势的模拟值与观测值一致,但是从半小时到年尺度均被高估.特别地,冷锋过境期间,模型能较好地模拟出潜热通量和感热通量的变化趋势,但对于高风速条件下的感热通量模拟效果不佳.本文的研究结果能为湖泊模式的应用与发展提供有用信息. 相似文献
12.
Spatio‐temporal variability of water and energy fluxes – a case study for a mesoscale catchment in pre‐alpine environment 
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下载免费PDF全文 Luitpold Hingerl Harald Kunstmann Sven Wagner Matthias Mauder Jan Bliefernicht Riccardo Rigon 《水文研究》2016,30(21):3804-3823
Water and energy fluxes at and between the land surface, the subsurface and the atmosphere are inextricably linked over all spatio‐temporal scales. Our research focuses on the joint analysis of both water and energy fluxes in a pre‐alpine catchment (55 km2) in southern Germany, which is part of the Terrestrial Environmental Observatories (TERENO). We use a novel three‐dimensional, physically based and distributed modelling approach to reproduce both observed streamflow as an integral measure for water fluxes and heat flux and soil temperature measurements at an observation location over a period of 2 years. While heat fluxes are often used for comparison of the simulations of one‐dimensional land surface models, they are rarely used for additional validation of physically based and distributed hydrological modelling approaches. The spatio‐temporal variability of the water and energy balance components and their partitioning for dominant land use types of the study region are investigated. The model shows good performance for simulating daily streamflow (Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency > 0.75). Albeit only streamflow measurements are used for calibration, the simulations of hourly heat fluxes and soil temperatures at the observation site also show a good performance, particularly during summer. A limitation of the model is the simulation of temperature‐driven heat fluxes during winter, when the soil is covered by snow. An analysis of the simulated spatial fields reveals heat flux patterns that reflect the distribution of the land use and soil types of the catchment. The water and energy partitioning is characterized by a strong seasonal cycle and shows clear differences between the selected land use types. Copyright © 2016 The Authors Hydrological Processes Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 相似文献
13.
Streamflow forecasting methods are moving towards probabilistic approaches that quantify the uncertainty associated with the various sources of error in the forecasting process. Multi-model averaging methods which try to address modeling deficiencies by considering multiple models are gaining much popularity. We have applied the Bayesian Model Averaging method to an ensemble of twelve snow models that vary in their heat and melt algorithms, parameterization, and/or albedo estimation method. Three of the models use the temperature-based heat and melt routines of the SNOW17 snow accumulation and ablation model. Nine models use heat and melt routines that are based on a simplified energy balance approach, and are varied by using three different albedo estimation schemes. Finally, different parameter sets were identified through automatic calibration with three objective functions. All models use the snow accumulation, liquid water transport, and ground surface heat exchange processes of the SNOW17. The resulting twelve snow models were combined using Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA). The individual models, BMA predictive mean, and BMA predictive variance were evaluated for six SNOTEL sites in the western U.S. The models performed best and the BMA variance was lowest at the colder sites with high winter precipitation and little mid-winter melting. An individual snow model would often outperform the BMA predictive mean. However, observed snow water equivalent (SWE) was captured within the 95% confidence intervals of the BMA variance on average 80% of the time at all sites. Results are promising that consideration of multiple snow structures would provide useful uncertainty information for probabilistic hydrologic prediction. 相似文献
14.
年代际预测是近年来气候变化研究的一个迅速发展的新兴热点领域,其首要步骤是进行初始化,目的是为年代际预测提供包含观测变率信息的初值.发展效果好且省时的初始化方法是年代际预测的重大挑战之一,目前国际上主流的初始化方法是耦合资料同化,即在耦合模式框架下进行同化.在年代际预测时,由于模式偏差和初始化方法性能的限制会产生初始冲击问题.目前国际上的各模式机构普遍对北大西洋、热带东西太平洋和印度洋海表温度的年代际预测水平高,而对全球平均近地面气温和北太平洋海表温度的年代际预测水平相对较差.本文主要从初始化方法和年代际预测这两方面的研究现状进行全面回顾,指出存在的问题并讨论未来的发展趋势和挑战. 相似文献
15.
本文在城市边界层预报模式中耦合了一个单层冠层模式,此模式能够体现城市冠层结构和人为热源对城市热岛的共同作用.通过传统平板模式和城市冠层模式的模拟结果与自动气象站观测资料对比发现,耦合了城市冠层模式的模拟结果与观测资料更为吻合,尤其能够较好地模拟出城市地区夜间地面的气温变化情况.对北京城市区域的模拟结果进行分析,白家庄地区冠层建筑物使得城市地区气温白天下降,夜晚上升,不考虑人为热源作用时,城市冠层使得白家庄站地面气温白天最低下降2.5℃,夜间气温最大升高为4.7℃.针对模拟区域较小的理想算例模拟结果分析表明,城市冠层模式能够很好地模拟城市地区地表能量平衡关系,体现城市冠层对长短波辐射的封截以及热量存储能力,全天平均净辐射通量由传统模式的43.38 W/m2变为84.19 W/m2,热存储通量白天最大值为278.04 W/m2,夜晚最大释放热存储通量为160.35 W/m2.冠层建筑物和人为热源对夜间城市热岛强度的贡献分别为70.65％和29.35％.城市冠层建筑物对夜间城市热岛的形成起决定性作用. 相似文献
16.
Water temperature is a key physical habitat determinant in lotic ecosystems as it influences many physical, chemical, and biological properties of rivers. Hence, a good understanding of the thermal regime of rivers and river heat fluxes is essential for effective management of water and fisheries resources. This study dealt with the modelling of river water temperature using a deterministic model. This model calculated the different heat fluxes at the water surface and from the streambed using different hydrometeorological conditions. The water temperature model was applied on two watercourses of different sizes and thermal characteristics, but within a similar meteorological region, namely, the Little Southwest Miramichi River and Catamaran Brook (New Brunswick, Canada). The model was also applied using microclimate data, i.e. meteorological conditions within the river environment (1–2 m above the water surface), for a better estimation of river heat fluxes. Water temperatures at different depths within the riverbed were also used to estimate the streambed heat fluxes. Results showed that microclimate data were essential to get accurate estimates of the surface heat fluxes. Results also showed that for larger river systems, the surface heat fluxes were generally the dominant component of the heat budget with a correspondingly smaller contribution from the streambed. As watercourses became smaller and groundwater contribution more significant, the streambed contribution became important. For instance, approximately 80% of the heat fluxes occurred at the surface for Catamaran Brook (20% from the streambed) whereas the Little Southwest Miramichi River showed values closer to 90% (10% from the streambed). As was reported in previous studies, the solar radiation input dominated the contribution to the heat gain at 63% for Catamaran Brook and 89% for Little Southwest Miramichi River. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
17.
大量近地层观测试验表明,利用涡动相关法观测的湍流通量小于近地层可利用能量,即近地层能量是不闭合的,这种不闭合度一般为20%甚至更高.而陆面过程模式是基于地气间能量平衡建立,并且模式中的湍流边界层参数化方案通常根据实际观测的湍流通量来确定,因此能量不闭合必将对陆面过程模式造成一定的影响.本文利用2007年春季SACOL站的近地层观测资料,依据能量守恒将能量不闭合中的残余能量通过波文比分配到观测的湍流通量中,即修正涡动相关法观测的湍流通量使得近地层能量达到平衡;之后分别利用观测和修正的湍流通量,建立了能量不闭合和闭合情形下的湍流参数化方案,借助陆面过程模式SHAW,通过数值模拟和对比分析方法考察近地层能量闭合度对陆面过程模式的影响.研究结果表明近地层能量闭合对陆面过程模式有显著的影响:在陆面过程数值模拟中,当应用近地层能量不闭合的湍流通量形成的湍流参数化方案时,陆面过程模式会明显高估地表长波辐射及土壤温度;但当应用修正湍流通量使得近地层能量达到闭合形成的湍流参数化方案后,在不改变任何地表土壤物理生化属性的情况下,陆面过程模式能较好地模拟地表长波辐射和土壤温度. 相似文献
18.
William P. Kustas Martha C. Anderson Andrew N. French Dean Vickers 《Advances in water resources》2006
During a remote sensing field experiment conducted in the Southern Great Plains in 1997 (SGP97), tower and aircraft-based flux observations were collected over one of the main study sites in central Oklahoma. This is an agricultural region and contains primarily grassland/pasture and winter wheat, which was recently harvested leaving a significant number of fields either as wheat stubble or plowed bare soil. Multi-spectral data obtained by aircraft provided high-resolution (30 m) spatially-distributed vegetation cover and surface temperature information over the study area. The spatial variations in these surface states strongly affect the partitioning of surface fluxes between sensible and latent heat. These data, together with coarser resolution (5 km) satellite data, are used in a remote sensing-based energy balance modeling system that disaggregates flux estimates from 5 km to 30-m resolution. The resulting high-resolution flux maps provide a means for evaluating whether tower and aircraft-based flux measurements sample a full range in flux conditions for this landscape. In addition, this remote sensing-based modeling system can be used to investigate the influence of variability in these key surface states on tower and aircraft measurements through flux-footprint modeling. Under the light wind and unstable conditions that existed during the observations, highest correlation between aircraft and modeled estimated heat and water vapor fluxes were obtained using different flux-footprint estimates. More specifically, the source area for heat was estimated to be much closer to the aircraft flight line than for water vapor. 相似文献
19.
Tommy G. Jensen Timothy J. Campbell Richard A. Allard Richard Justin Small Travis A. Smith 《Ocean Dynamics》2011,61(5):657-674
The coupled ocean atmosphere mesoscale prediction system that includes the Navy Coastal Ocean Model has been configured for
the Kuroshio Extension region using multiple one-way nested high-resolution grids. The coupled model system was used to simulate
a strong cold-air outbreak event from 31 Jan to 7 Feb 2005 in good agreement with meteorological data from a surface buoy
data and QuikSCAT scatterometer winds. Latent heat fluxes and sensible heat fluxes were computed during the event with daily
averages in excess of 1,500 W/m2 and 500 W/m2, respectively, and combined instantaneous turbulent heat fluxes up to 2,300 W/m2. The largest heat fluxes were found in two large meanders of the Kuroshio and along its southern flank. Strong gradients
in turbulent heat fluxes coincided with strong sea surface temperature gradients and were maintained during the cold-air outbreak
simulation. The large turbulent heat fluxes lead to significant subtropical mode water formation during the event at a rate
about 10 Sv in the cyclonic recirculation region south of the Kuroshio. This increased the volume of core layer mode water
within the temperature range 16°C to 18°C by 10% and increased the surface area of that layer directly exposed to the atmosphere
by a factor close to 5 in the model domain. 相似文献
20.
Marzieh Mortezapour Brian Menounos Peter L. Jackson Andre R. Erler Ben M. Pelto 《水文研究》2020,34(25):5085-5103
Glaciers are commonly located in mountainous terrain subject to highly variable meteorological conditions. High resolution meteorological (HRM) data simulated by atmospheric models can complement meteorological station observations in order to assess changes in glacier energy fluxes and mass balance. We examine the performance of two snow models, SnowModel and Alpine3D, forced by different meteorological data for winter mass balance simulations at four glaciers in the Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin. The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) with resolution of 1 km and the North American Land Data Assimilation System with ~12 km resolution, provide HRM data for the two snow models. Evaluation is based on the ability of the snow models to simulate snow depth at both point locations (automated snow weather stations) and over the entire glacier surface (airborne LiDAR [Light Detection and Ranging] surveys) during the 2015/2016 winter accumulation. When forced with HRM data, both models can reproduce snow depth to within ±15% of observed values. Both models underestimate winter mass balance when forced by HRM data. When driven with WRF data, SnowModel underestimates winter mass balance integrated over the glacier area by 1 and 10%, whilst Alpine3D underestimates winter mass balance by 12 and 22% compared with LiDAR and stake measurements, respectively. The overall results show that SnowModel forced by WRF simulated winter mass balance the best. 相似文献