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1.
Koen De Ridder 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2010,134(2):257-267
In the roughness sublayer (RSL), Monin–Obukhov surface layer similarity theory fails. This is problematic for atmospheric
modelling applications over domains that include rough terrain such as forests or cities, since in these situations numerical
models often have the lowest model level located within the RSL. Based on empirical RSL profile functions for momentum and
scalar quantities, and scaling the height with the RSL height z
*, we derive a simple bulk transfer relation that accounts for RSL effects. To verify the validity of our approach, these relations
are employed together with wind speed and temperature profiles measured over boreal forest during the BOREAS experimental
campaign to estimate momentum and heat fluxes. It is demonstrated that, when compared with observed flux values, the inclusion
of RSL effects in the transfer relations yields a considerable improvement in the estimated fluxes. 相似文献
2.
Spatial Variability of Turbulent Fluxes in the Roughness Sublayer of an Even-Aged Pine Forest 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
Gabriel Katul Cheng-I Hsieh David Bowling Kenneth Clark Narasinha Shurpali Andrew Turnipseed John Albertson Kevin Tu Dave Hollinger Bob Evans Brian Offerle Dean Anderson David Ellsworth Chris Vogel Ram Oren 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1999,93(1):1-28
The spatial variability of turbulent flow statistics in the roughness sublayer (RSL) of a uniform even-aged 14 m (= h) tall loblolly pine forest was investigated experimentally. Using seven existing walkup towers at this stand, high frequency velocity, temperature, water vapour and carbon dioxide concentrations were measured at 15.5 m above the ground surface from October 6 to 10 in 1997. These seven towers were separated by at least 100m from each other. The objective of this study was to examine whether single tower turbulence statistics measurements represent the flow properties of RSL turbulence above a uniform even-aged managed loblolly pine forest as a best-case scenario for natural forested ecosystems. From the intensive space-time series measurements, it was demonstrated that standard deviations of longitudinal and vertical velocities (u, w) and temperature (T) are more planar homogeneous than their vertical flux of momentum (u*
2) and sensible heat (H) counterparts. Also, the measured H is more horizontally homogeneous when compared to fluxes of other scalar entities such as CO2 and water vapour. While the spatial variability in fluxes was significant (>15 %), this unique data set confirmed that single tower measurements represent the canonical structure of single-point RSL turbulence statistics, especially flux-variance relationships. Implications to extending the moving-equilibrium hypothesis for RSL flows are discussed. The spatial variability in all RSL flow variables was not constant in time and varied strongly with spatially averaged friction velocity u*, especially when u* was small. It is shown that flow properties derived from two-point temporal statistics such as correlation functions are more sensitive to local variability in leaf area density when compared to single point flow statistics. Specifically, that the local relationship between the reciprocal of the vertical velocity integral time scale (Iw) and the arrival frequency of organized structures (/h) predicted from a mixing-layer theory exhibited dependence on the local leaf area index. The broader implications of these findings to the measurement and modelling of RSL flows are also discussed. 相似文献
3.
Matthias Roth Jennifer A. Salmond A. N. V. Satyanarayana 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2006,121(2):351-375
We address some of the methodological challenges associated with the measurement of turbulence and use of scintillometers in the urban roughness sublayer (RSL). Two small-aperture scintillometers were located near the roof interface in a densely urbanized part of Basel, Switzerland, as part of the Basel Urban Boundary-Layer Experiment (BUBBLE) in the summer of 2002. Eddy correlation instruments were co-located near the mid-point of each scintillometer path for data verification purposes. The study presents the first values of the inner length scale of turbulence (l
0) and the refractive index structure parameter of air
for a city and demonstrates the influence of mechanical driven turbulence on dissipation. Comparison of dissipation values determined from the two approaches show large scatter that is possibly due to the spatial inhomogeneity of the turbulence statistics within the RSL. Velocity and temperature spectra display a −2/3 slope in the inertial subrange, although the spectral ratio is less than the theoretical prediction of 4/3 expected for isotropy. Conventional Monin–Obukhov equations used to calculate fluxes from the scintillometer were replaced with urban forms of the equations. The results suggest that the scintillometer may be an appropriate tool for the measurement of sensible heat flux (Q
H
) above the rooftops given a suitable determination of the effective measurement height. 相似文献
4.
Buoyancy and The Sensible Heat Flux Budget Within Dense Canopies 总被引:1,自引:8,他引:1
D. Cava G. G. Katul A. Scrimieri D. Poggi A. Cescatti U. Giostra 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2006,118(1):217-240
In contrast to atmospheric surface-layer (ASL) turbulence, a linear relationship between turbulent heat fluxes (FT) and vertical gradients of mean air temperature within canopies is frustrated by numerous factors, including local variation
in heat sources and sinks and large-scale eddy motion whose signature is often linked with the ejection-sweep cycle. Furthermore,
how atmospheric stability modifies such a relationship remains poorly understood, especially in stable canopy flows. To date,
no explicit model exists for relating FT to the mean air temperature gradient, buoyancy, and the statistical properties of the ejection-sweep cycle within the canopy
volume. Using third-order cumulant expansion methods (CEM) and the heat flux budget equation, a “diagnostic” analytical relationship
that links ejections and sweeps and the sensible heat flux for a wide range of atmospheric stability classes is derived. Closure
model assumptions that relate scalar dissipation rates with sensible heat flux, and the validity of CEM in linking ejections
and sweeps with the triple scalar-velocity correlations, were tested for a mixed hardwood forest in Lavarone, Italy. We showed
that when the heat sources (ST) and FT have the same sign (i.e. the canopy is heating and sensible heat flux is positive), sweeps dominate the sensible heat flux.
Conversely, if ST and FT are opposite in sign, standard gradient-diffusion closure model predict that ejections must dominate the sensible heat flux. 相似文献
5.
Roughness length for heat over an urban canopy 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The roughness length for heat zT was evaluated over an urban canopy, using the measured sensible heat flux and radiometric temperature. To overcome thermal heterogeneity in the urban area, the measured radiometric temperature was transformed into the equivalent temperature of an upward longwave radiation flux. The equivalent temperature was found to provide an effective parameterization of the radiometric temperature. The daytime average of the resulting ln(zT/z0) was 10, where z0 is the aerodynamic roughness length. This result generally agrees with previous studies; however, the anthropogenic heat is a large uncertainty, which could cause an error at least 240% in zT. 相似文献
6.
Estimation of the sensible heat flux of a semi-arid area using surface radiative temperature measurements 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
In the framework of an international field program for the study of semi-arid areas, observations were done in the region called La Crau in southern France. In this paper, the use of the surface radiative temperature for the determination of the sensible heat flux is addressed. We found that, once proper values of the roughness length of momentum (z
0) and heat (z
0h) are set, the sensible heat flux can be reliably predicted with a one-layer resistance model using standard observations of wind speed and air temperature, together with the surface temperature. The latter quantity has to be known with a precision better than ±2°C. From our observations, the value of the parameterB
–1k
–1 In (z
0
z
0h) was found to be 9.2, which falls between values quoted by Brutsaert (1982) for grass and bluff bodies. 相似文献
7.
Xiao-Ming Cai 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2012,142(3):443-467
We develop a large-eddy simulation (LES) model based on a meteorological numerical model for a real scale street-canyon flow
with rough building facets heated by a given temperature. The model is applied to a canyon with the aspect ratio of unity
for two idealized heating scenarios: (1) the roof and the entire upstream wall are heated, named as ‘assisting cases’, and
(2) the roof and the entire downstream wall are heated, named as ‘opposing cases’. These facets were heated up to 15 K above
the air temperature. A wall function for temperature is proposed for a rough facet with an assumption that the thermal roughness
length, z
0T, is much smaller than the aerodynamic roughness length, z
0. It is demonstrated that the sensible heat flux and canyon-air temperature are significantly influenced by the near-facet
process that is parametrized by z
0T as the primary factor; other processes such as in-canyon mixing and roof-level exchange are secondary. This new finding strongly
suggests that it is vital to choose an appropriate value of z
0T in a numerical simulation of street-canyon flows with the facet-air exchange processes of heat or any scalar. The finding
also raises an awareness of the demand for carefully designed laboratory or field experiments of quantifying z
0T values for various urban surfaces. For the opposing cases, an unsteady penetrating narrow updraft zone appears occasionally
along the heated wall and this feature is consistent field observations. The unique result indicates the superior capability
of LES. The results of this study can be used to guide the parametrization of turbulent processes inside the urban canopy
layer. 相似文献
8.
In scintillometry Monin–Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) is used to calculate the surface sensible heat flux from the structure parameter of temperature (CT2){(C_{T^2})} . In order to prevent saturation a scintillometer can be installed at an elevated level. However, in that case the observation level might be located outside the atmospheric surface layer (ASL) and thus the validity of MOST questioned. Therefore, we examine two concepts to determine the turbulent surface sensible heat flux from the structure parameter at elevated levels with data obtained at 60-m height on the Cabauw tower (the Netherlands). In the first concept (MOSTs) CT2{C_{T^2}} is still scaled with the surface flux, whereas in the second (MOSTl) CT2{C_{T^2}} is scaled with the local sensible heat flux. The CT2{C_{T^2}} obtained from both concepts is compared with direct observations of CT2{C_{T^2}} using a sonic anemometer/thermometer. In the afternoon (when the measurement height is located within the ASL) both concepts give results that are comparable to the directly observed values of CT2{C_{T^2}} . In the morning (data outside the ASL), our data do not unequivocally support either of the two concepts. First, the peak in CT2{C_{T^2}} that occurs when the measurement height is located in the entrainment zone disqualifies the use of MOST. Second, during the morning transition, local scaling shows the correct pattern (zero flux and a minimum in CT2{C_{T^2}}) but underestimates CT2{C_{T^2}} by a factor of ten. Third, from the best linear fit a we found that the slope of MOSTl gave better results, whereas the offset is closer to zero for MOSTs. Further, the correlation between the direct observations and MOST-scaled results is low and similar for the two concepts. In the end, we conclude that MOST is not applicable for the morning hours when the observation level is above the ASL. 相似文献
9.
The scintillation method tested over a dry vineyard area 总被引:8,自引:1,他引:8
H. A. R. De Bruin B. J. J. M. Van Den Hurk W. Kohsiek 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1995,76(1-2):25-40
Measurements of a scintillometer device mounted at 4 m above a dry vineyard area in La Mancha, Spain, are used to obtain an average sensible heat flux densityH. Averaging is over a rectangular area determined by the distance between the scintillometer light source and receptor (875 m) and some upwind distance governed by the horizontal wind speed perpendicular to that line. Using similarity relations obtained from La Crau, a good correspondence betweenH measured with the scintillometer and an eddy-correlation device in the centre of a vineyard is obtained. The friction velocityu
* was either measured directly using a sonic anemometer or obtained indirectly from two wind speeds and known values of the roughness length zo and displacementd. The free convection formulation underestimates the sensible heat flux by about 30%. This is due to a significant contribution of mechanically generated turbulence to the total turbulent transport, which was caused by relatively strong winds and rough terrain. 相似文献
10.
The dependence of radiometric surface temperature (s) on view angle and the unclear definition of the aerodynamic temperature, which is the temperature that gives the correct sensible heat flux estimate at a specified roughness length, bring about a challenge in estimating sensible heat flux from s. An analytical-land-atmosphere-radiometer model (ALARM) has been developed to convert s taken at any zenith view angle to a clearly defined equivalent isothermal surface temperature, i, at a defined scalar roughness length. ALARM is an analytical model based on K-theory that links the foliage temperature profile to the radiometric surface temperature and the temperature felt by the turbulent lower atmosphere. ALARM has previously been applied with slightly different values of its parameters to several grassland sites of varying canopy density. Our objective in this study was to apply ALARM to these and to one additional dataset with a single parameterization. When compared to the reference (measured) values of sensible heat flux H, ALARM estimates of H had root mean square errors of about 35 W m-2. These results were comparable to those from two other simple canopy models also tested with these datasets. 相似文献
11.
Daily sensible heat flux estimation from a single measurement of surface temperature and maximum air temperature 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
Surface energy budget investigations of a range of agricultural surfaces in France and the African Sahel demonstrate consistent linear relationships between daily totals of sensible heat flux (H
d) and the difference between a once-a-day radiative measurement of surface temperature and the maximum air temperature at a height of 2 m. Surface temperature was measured with nadir-viewing radiothermometers near 1400 h (LST). The average residual standard error in the estimate ofH
d was 0.6 mm of equivalent evaporation.An equation for the daily sensible heat flux (H
d) having a form analogous to Dalton's evaporation formula was derived from surface energy budget considerations. This equation discriminates well between relatively homogeneous, low-cover surfaces where surface exchange characteristics can be assumed to be simple fractions of the height of the roughness elements. By contrast, data from two other crops with discontinuous plant cover suggest a much reduced sensitivity to canopy architecture. This result is not unreasonable if scalar transport were controlled by the thermal conductivity of a layer of still air close to ground level which is sheltered by the plant canopy. There is scope for further experimental and theoretical work on this matter. 相似文献
12.
Denny P. Alappattu D. Bala Subrahamanyam P. K. Kunhikrishnan Radhika Ramachandran K. M. Somayaji R. Venkatesh G. S. Bhat A. Bhagavath Singh 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2008,126(2):297-309
We report the spatio-temporal variability of surface-layer turbulent fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum over the Bay of
Bengal (BoB) and the Arabian Sea (AS) during the Integrated Campaign for Aerosols, gases Radiation Budget (ICARB) field experiment.
The meteorological component of ICARB conducted during March – May 2006 onboard the oceanic research vessel Sagar Kanya forms
the database for the present study. The bulk transfer coefficients and the surface-layer fluxes are estimated using a modified
bulk aerodynamic method, and then the spatio-temporal variability of these air-sea interface fluxes is discussed in detail.
It is observed that the sensible and latent heat fluxes over the AS are marginally higher than those over the BoB, which we
attribute to differences in the prevailing meteorological conditions over the two oceanic regions. The values of the wind
stress, sensible and latent heat fluxes are compared with those obtained for the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) period.
The variation of drag coefficient (C
D
), exchange coefficients of sensible heat and moisture (C
H
= C
E
) and neutral drag coefficient (C
DN
) with wind speed is also discussed.
相似文献
13.
Summary ?Simultaneous flight measurements with the research aircraft Do 128 and the helicopter-borne turbulence probe Helipod were
performed on 18 June 1998 during the LITFASS-98 field experiment. The area-averaged turbulent vertical fluxes of momentum,
sensible, and latent heat were determined on a 15 km × 15 km and a 10 km × 10 km flight pattern, respectively. The flights
were carried out over heterogeneous terrain at different altitudes within a moderately convective boundary layer with Cumulus
clouds.
Co-spectra-analysis demonstrated that the small scale turbulent transport was completely sampled, while the comparatively
small flight patterns were possibly of critical size regarding the large-scale turbulence. The phygoide of the airplane was
identified as a significant peak in some co-spectra. The turbulent fluxes of momentum and sensible heat at 80 m above the
ground showed systematic dependence on the location of the flight legs above the heterogeneous terrain. This was not observed
for the latent heat flux, probably due to the vertical distribution of humidity in the boundary layer.
Statistical error analysis of the fluxes F showed that the systematic statistical error ΔF was one order of magnitude smaller than the standard deviation σ
F
. The difference between area-averaged fluxes derived from simultaneous Helipod and Do 128 measurements was much smaller than
σ
F
, indicating that the systematic statistical error was possibly over-estimated by the usual method.
In the upper half of the boundary layer the airborne-measured sensible heat flux agreed well with windprofiler/RASS data.
A linear fit was the best approximation for the height dependence of all three fluxes. The linear extrapolations of the latent
and sensible heat fluxes to the ground were in good agreement with tower, scintillometer, and averaged ground-station measurements
on various surface types. Systematic discrepancies between airborne and ground-based measurements were not found.
Received June 18, 2001; revised December 21, 2001; accepted June 3, 2002 相似文献
14.
Parametrisations of meridional energy and moisture transport used in zonally averaged climate models are validated using
reanalysis data and results from a doubling CO2-experiment from a general circulation model. Global meridional fluxes of moisture and sensible heat are calculated by integrating
surface and top-of-the-atmosphere vertical fluxes from one pole to the other. The parametrisations include an eddy-diffusion
term, representing down-gradient transport of specific humidity and temperature due to the transient atmospheric eddies at
mid- and high latitudes, and simple representations of the mean meridional circulation. Qualitative and quantitative agreement
between the increased hydrological cycle in the 2×CO2-run from the GCM and the parametrisation is found. The performance for the sensible heat flux shows larger differences to
the GCM results, particularly at low latitudes. Seasonal variations of the moisture and sensible heat transport are well captured
by parametrisations including the influence of the mean meridional circulation. Interannual variability cannot be simulated.
An examination of the parametrisations on different spatial scales suggests that they should not be used for small scales.
Furthermore, two closures for the zonal distribution of precipitation were examined. They are used in zonally averaged atmosphere
models coupled to an ocean model with different ocean basins at one latitudinal belt. An assessment of both the reanalysis
data and the GCM results shows that both closures exhibit very similar behaviour and are valid in the long-term mean and seasonal
cycle. Interannual variability is not captured well. They become invalid for spatial scales smaller than 10∘.
Received: 30 November 1998 / Accepted: 4 July 1999 相似文献
15.
Hans-Dieter Haenel 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1993,65(1-2):55-67
The iteration scheme of Robinson (1962) for the determination ofz
0 andd under neutral atmospheric stability has been generalized in a relatively simple manner. It now accounts for nonneutral conditions and permits simultaneous calculation ofd,z
0, and flux densities of latent and sensible heat. Using profile data sets given in the literature, the generalized scheme yields results which agree quite well with those obtained by Kramm (1989). 相似文献
16.
Measurement of the Sensible Eddy Heat Flux Based on Spatial Averaging of Continuous Ground-Based Observations 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
M. Mauder R. L. Desjardins E. Pattey Z. Gao R. van Haarlem 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2008,128(1):151-172
Using the standard eddy-covariance (EC) method to quantify mass and energy exchange at a single location usually results in
an underestimation of vertical eddy fluxes at the surface. In order to better understand the reasons for this underestimation,
an experimental set-up is presented that is based on spatial averaging of air temperature data from a network of ground-based
sensors over agricultural land. For eight days during the 34-day observational period in May and June 2007, additional contributions
to the sensible heat flux of more than 50Wm−2 were measured in the lower surface layer by applying the spatial EC method as opposed to the standard temporal EC method.
Smaller but still significant additional sensible heat fluxes were detected for four more days. The additional energy is probably
transported in organised convective structures resulting in a mean vertical wind velocity unequal to zero at the tower location.
The results show that convective transport contributes significantly to the surface energy budget for measurement heights
as low as 2–3 m. Since these structures may be quasi-stationary, they can hardly be captured by a single-location measurement.
The spatial EC set-up presented here is capable of quantifying contributions to the sensible heat flux from structures up
to the scale of our spatial sensor network, which covered an area 3.5 × 3.5 km. For future experiments aiming at closing the
energy balance, the spatial EC method should be employed to measure both the sensible and latent heat fluxes. Experimental
determination of the horizontal advection of sensible and latent heat should also be considered, since such transport must
occur due to convergence and divergence related to convection. 相似文献
17.
Several formulations and proposals to determine the value of the radiometric scalar roughness for sensible heatz
0h,r
are tested with respect to their performance in the estimation of the sensible heat flux by means of the profile equations derived from Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. The equations are applied to the data set of spatially averaged surface skin temperature and profiles of wind speed and temperature observed in a pasture field during a growing season. The use of a physical model developed for a dense canopy to estimate scalar roughness for sensible heatz
0h,r
produced sensible heat fluxH with a correlation coefficientr=0.884, the ratio of means being H
s
/H=1.19 in a comparison with reference values ofH
s
. In comparison, a proposal for a fixed value ofz
0h
yieldedr=0.887, H
s
/H=0.879. In both cases, the validity ofz
0h
=z
0h,r
was assumed. All expressions derived to estimatez
0h,r
from a multiple linear regression with such predictors as leaf area index, solar radiation and the ratio of solar radiation to extraterrestrial radiation, were found to produce a better result, withr better than 0.90 and H
s
/H around 1.0. However, when the constantsc andf of a linear regression equationHs=cH+f are used to evaluate the equations, a marked difference in performance of each formulation appeared. In general, equations with smaller numbers of predictors tend to produce a biased result, i.e., an overestimation ofH at largeH
s
. These values ofH are used in conjunction with the energy balance equation to derive values of the latent heat fluxLE, which are shown to be in good agreement with the reference valuesLE
s
, withr greater than 0.97. 相似文献
18.
Dissimilarity of Scalar Transport in the Convective Boundary Layer in Inhomogeneous Landscapes 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
A land-surface model (LSM) is coupled with a large-eddy simulation (LES) model to investigate the vegetation-atmosphere exchange
of heat, water vapour, and carbon dioxide (CO2) in heterogeneous landscapes. The dissimilarity of scalar transport in the lower convective boundary layer is quantified
in several ways: eddy diffusivity, spatial structure of the scalar fields, and spatial and temporal variations in the surface
fluxes of these scalars. The results show that eddy diffusivities differ among the three scalars, by up to 10–12%, in the
surface layer; the difference is partly attributed to the influence of top-down diffusion. The turbulence-organized structures
of CO2 bear more resemblance to those of water vapour than those of the potential temperature. The surface fluxes when coupled with
the flow aloft show large spatial variations even with perfectly homogeneous surface conditions and constant solar radiation
forcing across the horizontal simulation domain. In general, the surface sensible heat flux shows the greatest spatial and
temporal variations, and the CO2 flux the least. Furthermore, our results show that the one-dimensional land-surface model scheme underestimates the surface
heat flux by 3–8% and overestimates the water vapour and CO2 fluxes by 2–8% and 1–9%, respectively, as compared to the flux simulated with the coupled LES-LSM. 相似文献
19.
卫星遥感结合气象资料计算的青藏高原地面感热特征分析 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
本文选取1981年7月至2012年12月美国国家航空和航天局(NASA)制作的归一化的动态植被指数(NDVI)资料、根据NDVI值计算地表热力输送系数(CH)的参数化关系式(CH-INDV)和青藏高原70个常规气象观测资料,计算了青藏高原全区的逐月地表热力输送系数(CH),讨论了其时空分布特征,并在此基础上计算了高原70个常规台站的感热通量(SSHF)序列,并与已有感热资料进行了对比。随后,探讨了地面感热通量的气候特征及其年际变化与气候因子的关系。结果表明:高原地区的CH值具有明显的空间差异和季节差异,表现为东高西低、夏季大、冬季小的特点。感热的年际变化在冬季主要响应于地气温差的变化,夏季则受地面风速影响较大;由于风速减小趋缓,地气温差增大,变化趋势在2003年前后由减弱趋势转变为增强趋势,这种趋势的转变最早发生在2001年秋季,且在高原全区具有较好的一致性。 相似文献
20.
P. A. Taylor 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1970,1(1):18-39
A numerical model of airflow in the lowest 50–100 m of the atmosphere above changes in surface roughness and temperature or heat flux has been developed based on boundary layer approximations, the Businger-Dyer hypotheses for the non-dimensional wind shear and heat flux and a mixing length hypothesis.Results have been obtained for several situations, in particular, airflow with neutral upstream conditions encountering a step change in surface temperature or heat flux with no roughness change. In these cases large increases in shear stress at the outer edge of the internal boundary layer are predicted. The case of unstable upstream flow encountering a step change to zero heat flux is also considered.Two situations that may be encountered near the shores of the Great Lakes are considered.Notation
B
Businger-Dyer constant (= 16.0) in form for M, H
-
c
p
Specific heat at constant pressure
-
g
Acceleration due to gravity
-
H
Upward vertical heat flux
-
H
0
, H
1
Surface heat fluxes for x < 0, x 0
-
k
von Kármán's constant ( = 0.4)
-
l
Mixing length
-
L
Monin-Obukhov length
-
L
0
Upstream value of L
-
m
Ratio of roughness lengths (= z
1/z
0)
-
RL
*
Non-dimensional parameter, see Equations (20, 22 and 24)
-
RL
1
*
Same as RL
* but with z
1 scaling (= mRL
*)
-
T
Scaled temperature
-
T
0
(z)
Upstream temperature profile
-
u
0, u
1(x)
Surface friction velocities for x < 0, x 0
-
U, W
Horizontal and vertical mean velocities
-
U
0
(z)
Upstream velocity profile
-
x, z
Horizontal and vertical coordinates
-
z
i
Local roughness length 相似文献