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1.
The Coniacian Arnager Limestone Formation is exposed on the Danish island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. It is composed of mound-bedded siliceous chalk, and X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy indicate a content of 30–70% insoluble minerals, including authigenic opal-CT, quartz, clinoptilolite, feldspars, calcite, dolomite, and barite. Opal-CT and clinoptilolite are the most common and constitute 16–53% and 2–9%, respectively. The content of insoluble minerals varies laterally both within the mounds and in planar beds, and the opal-CT content varies by up to 10% vertically. The mounds consist of two microfacies, spiculitic wackestone and bioturbated spiculitic wackestone, containing 10–22% and 7–12% moulds after spicules, respectively.Subsequent to deposition and shallow burial, dissolution of siliceous sponge spicules increased the silica activity of the pore water and initiated precipitation of opal-CT. The opal-CT formed at temperatures around 17 °C, the precipitation lowered the silica activity and the Si/Al ratio of the pore water, resulting in precipitation of clinoptilolite, feldspar and smectite. Calcite formed synchronously with the latest clinoptilolite. Minor amounts of quartz precipitated in pore water with low silica activity during maximum burial, probably to depths of 200–250 m. The dissolution of sponge spicules and decomposition of the sponge tissue also resulted in the release of Ba2+, Sr2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and CO32?, facilitating precipitation of barite and dolomite. Precipitation of especially opal-CT reduced the porosity to an average of 40% and cemented the limestone. The study highlights the diagenetic pathways of bio-siliceous chalk and the effects on preservation of porosity and permeability.  相似文献   

2.
A Tertiary non-marine stratigraphic sequence composed of carbonates(limestone),siliceous carbonates,coaly layers overlain by pyroclastic rocks and lavas,outcrops in the Gavatha area of northwestern Lesvos Island.Pure earbonates eonsist almost completely of calcite,the siliceous carbonate sediments of quartz,opal-CT and calcite,the shales of quartz,opal CT, K-feldspar,smecite-illite and ealcite,and the coaly layers of organic matter,quartz,opal-CT,feldspars and pyrite,Geochemical data indicate that smectite-illite,feldspars and associated elements(La,Zr,Y,Ba,Ce)are the products of alteration of volcanic rocks in a subtropical area A combination of sources in suggested for the formation of silica polymorphs:(a) biogenic or non-biogenic silica(opal-A) that was originally present in the form of diatiom frustules of in the form of inorganically prccipitated silica;(b)transformation o opall-A to opal-CT and quartz opal-C from alteration of volcanic glass of intercalated tuffites and overlying volcanics;and(c)opal-CT deposited primarily from hydrothermal solutions.  相似文献   

3.
Trace fossils from an upper Maastrichtian cyclic chalk-marl succession, the Rørdal Member, exposed in the Rørdal quarry, Denmark, are analysed in order to test whether the changes in substrate lithology exerted any control over the ichnodiversity, tiering complexity, and density of the infauna. The cyclicity is interpreted as caused by orbital changes within the Milankovitch frequency band. The carbonate content varies between 71 and 82 weight% in the marl and 82-92 weight% in the chalk beds. The material is based on 19 samples collected from six chalk and marl beds. The investigated bedding-normal sample surfaces vary in area between 29 and 155 cm2. Eight ichnogenera and two undetermined ichnogenera are recognised. The member is characterised by three ichnofabrics (A, B and C). The ichnofabric analysis is based on texture and internal structure of the sediments resulting from bioturbation. Ichnofabric A is found only in chalk samples and shows a poor preservation of trace fossils, whereas ichnofabric C is found in a few chalk and all marl samples and comprises a very dense, diverse and well preserved ichnofauna representing a high tiering complexity. Ichnofabric B represents an intermediate situation between ichnofabrics A and C and occurs in chalk samples immediately adjacent to marl beds. The observed changes in ichnofabrics between chalk and marl are related to the amount of clay in the samples and the differences in the occurrence of trace fossils are interpreted as due to differences in the visibility of traces between chalk and marl and not due to differences in ecological stress upon the endobenthic community of the two lithologies. The study thus provides an excellent example of how the effect of taphonomic factors may give a misleading and biased impression of apparent differences in the endobenthic community between chalk and marl.  相似文献   

4.
A well-developed regolith is preserved beneath early Proterozoic (Aphebian) rocks of the Otish and Mistassini Groups in Central Quebec, Canada. The regolith is covered by fluviatile clastic rocks (Otish Group) in the north, and by a thick sequence of stromatolitic and sandy dolomite (Mistassini Group) in the south.Where preserved beneath clastic rocks, the regolith exhibits the structures and textures of its crystalline parent rocks (tonalite, gneiss and amphibolite), despite the alteration of feldspars to clay minerals and the partial oxidation of biotite. A later event recrystallized the clay minerals to muscovite, while conserving the original outline of the feldspars. Beneath the dolomite, the regolith was largely replaced by dolomite, but retains many original textures. Dolomite replaced first the clay minerals, then quartz and unaltered feldspars and finally biotite. Repeated crustifications of dolomite with intervals of chert and minor anthraxolite surround unaltered blocks of crystalline rock within the regolith profile and similar complex veins fill many master joints. These veins are identical in composition to vug fillings throughout the overlying carbonate formations. Clasts of partly dolomitized regolith included in non-dolomitic sands filling channels and scours dug deep into the profile, suggest that dolomitization commenced very early, possibly related to a sabkha environment developed during the transgression.  相似文献   

5.
Some of the Lower Pleistocene bentonites of Milos and Kimolos islands, Greece, are valued for their white colour and physicochemical properties. They contain opal-CT and, sometimes, zeolite along with smectite, and have been derived from the alteration of rhyolitic volcanic rocks. The Miloan white bentonites contain Tatatilla-type montmorillonite and beidellite. The Kimolian ones have Chambers-type montmorillonite. The alteration process involved removal of alkalis and uptake of Mg, probably from sea water. Si is either redistributed or partially removed. The Kimolian white bentonites have higher brightnesses, L* and whiteness index values, and lower yellowness index and ΔE*ab values compared with the Miloan ones. The variations in white colour are inversely related to the abundance of Fe oxides and anatase, the occurrence of Fe in the smectite structure and its oxidation state. The presence of silica minerals is not an important factor affecting colour, but is undesirable since it imparts high abrasiveness in commercial products. The formation of white bentonites of high quality requires the removal of alkalis and silica during alteration of acid volcanics in order to avoid crystallization of zeolites and opal-CT. Fe needs to be incorporated into the smectite structure. Such conditions are rarely attained. Received: 25 September 1996 / Accepted: 17 January 1997  相似文献   

6.
Diagenetic transformation of clay minerals, zeolites and silica minerals in Cretaceous and Tertiary argillaceous rocks from deeply drilled wells in Japan were studied. Transformations of these minerals during diagenesis were as follows: in clay minerals, montmorillonite → montmorillonite-illite mixed-layer mineral → illite; in zeolites, volcanic glass → clinoptilolite → heulandite and/or analcite → laumontite and/or albite; in silica minerals, amorphous silica → low-cristobalite → low-quartz. Maximum overburden pressures and geothermal temperatures corresponding to these transformations in each well studied were calculated. For clay minerals, a pressure of approximately 900 kg cm?2 and a temperature of about 100°C are necessary for the transformation from montmorillonite to mixed-layer mineral and 920 kg cm?2 and 140°C for mixed-layer mineral to illite. Transformation from kaolinite to other minerals requires much higher pressures and temperatures than from montmorillonite to mixed-layer mineral. For zeolites, 330 kg cm?2 and 60°C are required for the transformation from volcanic glass to clinoptilolite, 860 kg cm?2 and 120°C for clinoptilolite to heulandite and/or analcite, and 930 kg cm?2 and 140°C for heulandite and/or analcite to laumontite and/or albite. For silica minerals, 250 kg cm?2 and 50°C are necessary for the transformation from amorphous silica to low-cristobalite and 660 kg cm?2 and 70°C for low-cristobalite to low-quartz. Based on these diagenetic mineral transformations, seven mineral zones are recognized in argillaceous sediments. On the other hand, from the porosity studies of argillaceous sediments in Japan, the process of diagenesis is classified into the following three stages. The early compaction stage is marked by shallow burial and viscous rocks with more than 30% porosity. The late compaction stage is characterized by intermediate burial and plastic rocks with 30-10% porosities. The transformation stage is marked by deep burial and elastic rocks with less than 10% porosity.  相似文献   

7.
The present study reports the results of research on volcaniclastic products from Logudoro (northern Sardinia), a reconstructed stratigraphic succession some hundreds of meters thick, comprising two different ignimbritic units separated by an epiclastic layer (generally ˜10 m thick). Clinoptilolite is the most widely distributed authigenic phase in epiclastite and unwelded units, always associated with opal-CT and sometimes with smectite. An adularia-like feldspar, cristobalite and epigenetic quartz are typical phases of welded units. Within the zeolitized units (unwelded ignimbrite and epiclastic units) clinoptilolite and opal-CT constitute the cement deriving from the transformation of the precursor rhyolitic glass, in agreement with a single zeolitization process that developed after the deposition of the entire succession. Silica increases in zeolitized rocks with respect to the precursor material, leading to hypothesize that the secondary mineralization process was favored by mineralized hydrothermal fluids preferentially circulating through the fault system of the area. Quartz veins in welded subunit and K-feldspar (adularia-like) preferentially located near the faults are in agreement with this hypothesis. The interaction of these fluids with the glassy fraction favored its dissolution and the consequent crystallization of clinoptilolite. Furthermore, the pH increase and the silica supersaturation enhanced the contemporary or subsequent precipitation of opal-CT. Received: 5 June 2000 / Accepted: 14 August 2000  相似文献   

8.
Comparison of chalk on the Ontong Java Plateau and chalk in the Central North Sea indicates that, whereas pressure dissolution is controlled by effective burial stress, pore-filling cementation is controlled by temperature. Effective burial stress is caused by the weight of all overlying water and sediments as counteracted by the pressure in the pore fluid, so the regional overpressure in the Central North Sea is one reason why the two localities have different relationships between temperature and effective burial stress. In the chalk of the Ontong Java Plateau the onset of calcite-silicate pressure dissolution around 490 m below sea floor (bsf) corresponds to an interval of waning porosity-decline, and even the occurrence of proper stylolites from 830 m bsf is accompanied by only minor porosity reduction. Because opal is present, the pore-water is relatively rich in Si which through the formation of Ca–silica complexes causes an apparent super-saturation of Ca and retards cementation. The onset of massive pore-filling cementation at 1100 m bsf may be controlled by the temperature-dependent transition from opal-CT to quartz. In the stylolite-bearing chalk of two wells in the Gorm and Tyra fields, the nannofossil matrix shows recrystallization but only minor pore-filling cement, whereas microfossils are cemented. Cementation in Gorm and Tyra is thus partial and has apparently not been retarded by opal-controlled pore-water. A possible explanation is that, due to the relatively high temperature, silica has equilibrated to quartz before the onset of pressure dissolution and thus, in this case, dissolution and precipitation of calcite have no lag. This temperature versus effective burial stress induced difference in diagenetic history is of particular relevance when exploring for hydrocarbons in normally pressured chalk, while most experience has been accumulated in the over-pressured chalk of the central North Sea.  相似文献   

9.
Clinoptilolite, a zeolite of the heulandite group, occurs commonly in sediments as an authigenic mineral. In the Middle Eocene of southern Israel, it constitutes from a few per cent up to 80 per cent of the insoluble residue of the chalks and limestones. It is associated with opal C-T, montmorillonite and palygorskite. These chalks and limestones overlie the Danian-Palaeocene Taqiya marls which also contain a well-established clay mineral sequence consisting of opal C-T, montmorillonite, palygorskite, sepiolite, and clinoptilolite. This paragenesis of minerals is shown to be typical of the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene times. It is world-wide, occurs in deep-sea sediments as well as in shallow water sediments, and results from the abundance of silica which probably reflects a warmer climate during this time period. The concentration of magnesium in the sea-water and its ratio to the other cations seem to determine which authigenic silicate will be formed.  相似文献   

10.
Diatom ooze and diatomaceous mudstone overlie terrigenous mudstone beds at Leg 19 Deep Sea Drilling Project sites. The diatomaceous units are 300-725 m thick but most commonly are about 600 m. Diagenesis of diatom frustules follows a predictable series of physical and chemical changes that are related primarily to temperature (depth of burial and local geothermal gradient). During the first 300-400 m of burial frustules are fragmented and undergo mild dissolution. By 600 m dissolution of opal-A (biogenic silica) is widespread. Silica reprecipitates abundantly as inorganic opal-A between 600 and 700 m sub-bottom depth. Inorganic opal-A is rapidly transformed by crystal growth to opal-CT. The result is formation of silica cemented mudstone and porcelanite beds. A regional acoustic reflector (called the bottom-simulating reflector, or BSR) occurs near 600 m depth in the sections. This acoustic event marks the upper surface where silicification (cementation) is active. In Bering Sea deposits, opal-A is transformed to opal-CT at temperatures between 35° and 50°C. This temperature range corresponds to a sub-bottom depth of about 600 m and is the area where silicification is most active. Thus, the BSR represents an isothermal surface; the temperature it records is that required to transform opal-A to opal-CT. Deposition of at least 500 m of diatomaceous sediment was required before the temperature at the base of the diatomaceous section was appropriate (35°-50°C) for silica diagenesis to occur. Accordingly, silica diagenesis did not begin until Pleistocene time. Once silicification began, in response to sediment accumulation during the Quaternary, the diagenetic front (the BSR) moved upsection in pace with the upward migrating thermal boundary. X-ray diffractograms and SEM photographs show three silica phases, biogenic opal-A, inorganic opal-A’, and opal-CT. These have crystallite sizes of 11-16 A, 20-27 A, and 40-81 A, respectively, normal to 101. The d(101) reflection of opal-CT decreases with depth of burial at DSDP Site 192. This occurs by solid-state ordering and requires at least 700 m of burial. Most clinoptilolite in Leg 19 cores forms from the diagenesis of siliceous debris rather than from the alteration of volcanic debris as is commonly reported.  相似文献   

11.
The diagenesis in the organic-rich Cretaceous to Eocene Al Hisa Phosphorite Formation (AHP), Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation (MCM) and Umm Rijam Chert-Limestone Formation (URC) formations of Jordan can be linked directly to the fluctuating sedimentary environment of this shelf depositional system in the Middle to Late Eocene, and its influence on the composition of the deposited sediment and the early burial diagenetic environment. Most cementation was early, mostly within the first 10 m of burial, perhaps entirely within the first 100 m of burial. We propose that the siliceous cements are derived from biogenic silica, probably of diatoms, deposited in a shelf of enhanced productivity. Volumetrically, the most important processes were the redistribution of biogenic opal-A (diatoms) and calcite to form pervasive, layered and nodular cements. The formation of the silica and carbonate cements is closely linked through the effects their dissolution and precipitation have on pore fluid chemistry and pH. The chert beds have a biogenic silica origin, formed through replacement of diatoms and radiolaria by opal-CT, and subsequently by quartz. Calcite cement has carbonate derived from microbial diagenesis of organic matter and calcium derived from seawater. The Mg for early dolomite may have been generated by replacement of opal-CT by quartz, ore dissolution of unstable high Mg calcite bioclasts. The silica and carbonate diagenetic processes are both linked to microbial diagenesis of organic matter, and are intimately linked in both time and space, with pH possibly influencing whether a silica or a carbonate mineral precipitates. The paucity of metal cations capable of precipitating as sulphides is crucial to the creation of acidic pore water favourable to silica precipitation, either as opal-CT, chalcedony or quartz. The lack of clay minerals as a sink for the Mg required for opal-CT polymerisation is the principal factor responsible for the remarkably early silica cementation. All the diagenetic processes, with the probable exception of the opal-CT to quartz transition are early, almost certainly within the first 10 m of burial, possibly much less. A paragenetic sequence is presented here based on these two cores that should be tested against a wider core distribution to see whether this diagenetic history can be generalised throughout the basin. Warm bottom water temperatures probably led to silica diagenesis at much shallower burial depths than occurs in many other sedimentary basins. Silicified layers, in turn, commonly host fractures, suggesting that mechanical properties of the strata began to differentiate at a very early stage in the burial cycle. This has wide implications for processes linking diagenesis to deformation.  相似文献   

12.
THE CENOZOIC GEORECORDS IN THE NORTHWEST OF YUNNAN AND THE EVOLUTION OF QING—ZANG PLATEAU  相似文献   

13.
Proglacial Lake Humber formed in the Vale of York and Ancholme Valley during the Late Devensian (Weichselian) glaciation, but its lake levels and their precise ages are uncertain. Three-dimensional geological modelling, based on 193 borehole sediment logs from the eastern part of the Vale of York, indicates that glaciolacustrine sediments extend no higher than 10?m O.D. By contrast, recent palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the region that suggest Lake Humber had eight recessional shorelines, extending from 42?m to 5?m O.D. Above 10?m O.D., the sediments become more discontinuous, and comprise clay with occasional chalk and flint gravel, and matrix-rich diamicton interdigitated with sands and gravels. Sedimentary and geochemical analyses of sands and gravels from one of the putative shorelines, at 25?m O.D., indicate an easterly provenance for these sediments. They are interpreted here as colluvial deposits, sourced largely by periglacial weathering of Jurassic and chalk bedrock. Collectively, the geological evidence suggests that the highest level of Lake Humber during the Late Devensian did not exceed 10?m O.D., and therefore reconstructions invoking higher lake levels are thought to be unlikely.  相似文献   

14.
Two clay gel systems, a sample of settled oil sands clay tailings and a montmorillonite gel, were effectively dewatered by conversion to calcium forms by ion exchange, followed by freezing and thawing in the case of the montmorillonite gel and by either centrifugation or freezing and thawing in the case of the oil sands slime. Maximum dewatering was shown to be associated with complete conversion to the calcium forms. The implications of caustic recovery during the process are discussed.  相似文献   

15.
The cytotoxicity of quartz in the human lung is recognized to be dependent on both the inherent properties of the silica dust and external factors related to the history of the dust and including the presence of surface contamination. In this study, the physical and chemical surface properties of quartz grains in commercial bentonite deposits from the western (South Dakota) and southern (Alabama) USA were investigated. Measured quartz contents of bentonites range from 1.9 to 8.5 wt% with the <10 μm size fraction comprising 6–45% of this total. Trace element contents (Fe–Ti–Al) of quartz grains from any given bentonite are similar, indicating a single origin for the quartz with little if any contamination from other sources. Surface coatings are pervasive on all quartz grains and resist removal by repeated vigorous washings and reaction with HCl. Textural attributes and XPS and EDS analyses of these coatings are consistent with most being montmorillonite and, less frequently, mixtures of montmorillonite and opaline silica. Opaline silica (opal-A and opal-CT) occurs in two texturally distinct generations: an early massive grain-coating event and as later lepispheres. Montmorillonite coating thicknesses range from <1 μm to more than 10 μm thick. Surfaces of plagioclase, K-feldspar, and biotite grains are conspicuously devoid of montmorillonite coatings, but may show sparse distributions of opal-CT lepispheres. HRTEM has not confirmed a topotactic relationship or atomic structural concordance between montmorillonite coatings and underlying quartz grains. Alternatively, a precursor volcanic glass phase that coats the quartz surfaces during volcanic eruption and/or preferential early precipitation of opaline silica on quartz may provide substrates for development of montmorillonite coatings. Estimations of montmorillonite biodurability under pulmonary pH conditions suggest possible prolonged sequestration of respired bentonite quartz grains from contact with lung materials and modified cytotoxic reactivity.  相似文献   

16.
Accelerated erosion of a desert cliff due to uncontrolled sewage water disposal was investigated at the Sede Boqer Campus in the Negev, Israel An erosional cirque formed by this water was studied as a model simulating natural processes. The cliffs consist of loess and conglomerate underlain by soft marl, clay, and chalk. The rate of erosion is of the order of 5%–8% of the volume of water discharged. The rate of incision ranges from 10 2 to 13.3 m/yr and is several orders higher than that expected under normal rainfall conditions The introduction of this new hydrological factor resulted in a severe disturbance of the morphological balance in the vicinity of the cliffs, accelerated erosion, and generated circular slides  相似文献   

17.
Pleistocene red soil horizons were exposed in different areas of the Barind Tract in north-west Bangladesh. X-ray diffractions of twenty seven samples from different depths of these soil horizons revealed that the soil horizons consisted of kaolinite, illite and chrysotile with significant amount of opal-CT. Samples from Maddhapara, Bogra, and Nachole contain kaolinite, illite, quartz and opal-CT, and the samples from Kantabari contain chrysotile instead of kaolinite. Clay mineral compositions of different soil horizons indicated two different types of clay assemblages, viz. (a) illitekaolinite and (b) illite-chrysotile. In the village of Kantabari, illite-chrysotile clay mineral assemblage indicate that soil horizons were formed under low temperatures with alkaline and reducing conditions. However, other soil horizons of illite-kaolinite clay mineral assemblage indicate that soils were possibly formed under humid, temperate and welldrained conditions. These two soil horizons were formed under different geochemical, geomorphological and climatic conditions from different parent materials. Scanning Electron Microscopy photographs showing the presence of glass shards and no opal-A were found using XRD, suggesting that the opal-A might not be a precursor to opal-CT in the red soil horizon of the study area. This opal-CT along with the general lack of fossils and presence of glass shards was indicative of a volcanogenic rather than biogenic origin for the Opal-CT in the study area, and X-ray fluorescence data reveals higher percentages of silica which is comparable to the Toba Ash of Toba Caldera, Indonesia of about 75,000 B.P.  相似文献   

18.
The Mendip Hills, located on the north-western margin of the Wessex Basin, clearly show the onlap of Upper Triassic to Middle Jurassic sediments onto folded Palaeozoic strata. Recent field mapping on the crest of the Beacon Hill pericline at Tadhill, near Frome, augmented by a suite of shallow boreholes, proved up to 6.2 m of glauconitic grey and green silty sand. These glauconitic sands rest unconformably on Silurian volcanic rocks and Devonian sandstone. Lithological and ipalaeontological analyses of these glauconitic sands indicate that they are part of the Lower Cretaceous Upper Greensand Formation. This provides the first evidence for the Albian transgression across the Mendip Hills. The implications for the Cretaceous overstep on the margins of the Wessex Basin, and the analogies with the Upper Greensand succession in Devon are discussed.  相似文献   

19.
The Pinxiang weathering profile is well developed on Early Triassic dacite lavas of the Baisi Formation. At the top of the profile is developed a red clay zone which is characterized mineralogically by kaolinite, iron oxide minerals, quartz, and a small amount of illite, montmorillonite and vermiculite. In going downwards the red clay zone gives way to a saprolite zone in which plagioclase pseudomorphs have been well preserved although replaced by kaolinite. Beneath the saprolite zone is the saprock zone characterized by less weathering for dacite. At the bottom of the weathering profile is the parent material, dacite, which is composed mainly of plagioclase, quartz, K-feldspar and biotite which have been largely altered into chlorite owing to submarine extrusion of dacite lavas. Some layers in the weathering profile show obvious sodium enrichment and potassium depletion relative to others. In the Al2O3-(CaO* Na2O)-K2O triangular diagram, the weathering trends of these layers in the middle stage are remarkably deviated from normal ones. Both mineralogy and micro-morphology of these layers indicate such deviation resulted from sodic metasomatism of orthoclase.  相似文献   

20.
Trace element concentrations of altered basaltic glass shards (layer silicates) and zeolites in volcaniclastic sediments drilled in the volcanic apron northeast of Gran Canaria during Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) leg 157 document variable element mobilities during low-temperature alteration processes in a marine environment. Clay minerals (saponite, montmorillonite, smectite) replacing volcanic glass particles are enriched in transition metals and rare earth elements (REE). The degree of retention of REE within the alteration products of the basaltic glass is correlated with the field strength of the cations. The high field-strength elements are preferentially retained or enriched in the alteration products by sorption through clay minerals. Most trace elements are enriched in a boundary layer close to the interface mineral-altered glass. This boundary layer has a key function for the physico-chemical conditions of the subsequent alteration process by providing a large reactive surface and by lowering the fluid permeability. The release of most elements is buffered by incorporation into secondary precipitates (sodium-rich zeolites, phillipsite, Fe- and Mn-oxides) as shown by calculated distribution coefficients between altered glasses and authigenic minerals. Chemical fluxes change from an open to a closed system behavior during prograde low-temperature alteration of volcaniclastic sediments with no significant trace metal flux from the sediment to the water column.  相似文献   

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