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1.
A record of mortar and salt analyses from the last 20 years on various monuments in Saxony demonstrates the close relation between the occurrence of magnesium sulphate salts and the use of dolomitic lime mortars in a regional frame. The regional distribution scheme of dolomitic lime in historic mortars depends on the geological setting of the territory, i.e. the natural occurrence of dolomite deposits. Sulphation of these mortars with the formation of magnesium sulphate and gypsum is mainly due to environmental pollution, as can be shown by sulphur stable isotope analyses. Exposure of the sulphated mortar surfaces to rain leads to the preferential dissolution and advective transport of the novel formed magnesium sulphate salts, which effloresce or subfloresce on the mortar surface or can be accumulated in the structure of adjoining porous building materials like natural stones. These processes may cause severe damages in mortars by the weakening of the binder and in porous stones by salt crystallisation of phases like epsomite and hexahydrite.  相似文献   

2.
The combined effect of microbial colonization by fungal growth and atmospheric pollutants in the sulfation of carbonate rocks was investigated by means of laboratory experiments of dry deposition of sulfur and nitrogen dioxides, in vitro microbiological assays and outdoor exposure tests. All the experiments were performed on Scaglia limestone, which is a very common building material in ancient monuments in Central Italy. Results point to a combined action of particulate matter deposition and sulfation in the formation of gypsum on the samples exposed outdoor, and to a significant influence of fungal growth in the conversion of metal sulfide particulate matter to sulfate thus promoting subsequent formation of gypsum also in the absence of pollution. The chemical and textural features of stone tend to enhance chemical weathering and fungal colonization in the short term, and to preserve the material in the long term.  相似文献   

3.
Atmospheric pollution is one of the main agents of decay in monuments and other works of art located in industrialised urban centres. SO2 is a permanent and abundant component of air pollution and, although it does not have an immediate visual effect, after continuous exposure, it can cause irreversible damage to building materials. Marble is one of the most commonly used ornamental stones in historical monuments and its mineralogical composition makes it very susceptible to damage caused by exposure to SO2. To measure the chemical reactions caused on marble by the action of atmosphere rich in SO2, selected calcitic and dolomitic samples were altered by weathering accelerated test. For this, seven marble types (four calcitic and three dolomitic) were exposed to high concentration of sulphur dioxide for 24 h in a climate chamber under controlled temperature and humidity conditions (20 °C and > 90 % HR). Changes on marble surfaces caused by reactions of SO2 with calcite and dolomite were studied using two non-destructive techniques: chromatic change by means of colorimetry and chemical analysis using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The development of new mineral phases was also observed by scanning electron microscopy. Colorimetric analysis revealed a decrease in lightness and chromatic parameters suggesting that these changes were due to the development of new mineral phases in all marbles. The XPS technique, which is generally used in the analysis of metals, is relatively new in the field of stone deterioration. It enabled us to recognise the development of sulphites and sulphates on marble surfaces with high precision, after just 24 h of exposure to high SO2 concentrations and to distinguish different decay paths for calcitic and dolomitic marbles.  相似文献   

4.
为探讨岩相古地理环境对储层的影响,以鄂尔多斯盆地中南部马五1-2亚段为例,综合利用岩芯观察及薄片鉴定、多矿物测井解释模型以及单因素分析多因素综合作图法等多种方法,对研究区岩相、岩相古地理特征进行了研究,并结合测井解释储层厚度的分布特征及实际天然气产量数据分析了岩相古地理环境对储层分布的影响。分析结果表明,研究区马五1-2亚段岩石类型主要包括白云岩（泥晶白云岩、膏盐溶蚀角砾白云岩、溶蚀角砾泥晶白云岩、溶蚀角砾含灰粉晶白云岩、灰云岩、含膏云岩、含泥含灰云岩、泥云岩）、石灰岩（云灰岩、含泥云灰岩）以及部分蒸发岩（石膏岩、盐岩）。岩相古地理环境以蒸发台地和局限台地亚相为主,蒸发台地亚相包括云坪和含膏云坪微相,局限台地亚相包括膏盐湖、膏湖和含膏湖微相。岩相古地理环境在一定程度上影响储层分布,蒸发台地亚相中的云坪微相、含膏云坪微相以及局限台地亚相中的部分含膏湖微相、膏湖微相均是储层发育的有利区域。  相似文献   

5.
石灰土作为路基填料代替宕渣是一种较为经济的方案,但灰土初始强度低、硬化速率慢、碳化时间长,不利于快速施工,需要进行改良研究。利用偏高岭土与石灰发生火山灰反应的原理改良灰土,通过单轴压缩试验和三轴压缩试验,分析改良灰土冻融循环条件下力学参数变化规律,利用图像处理技术提取改良灰土图像表面孔隙,建立孔隙率与强度的关系,并通过研究龄期、石灰含量和含水率变化规律,分析偏高岭土改良灰土的机制。结果表明：偏高岭土能够有效提高灰土材料反应速率,改善灰土力学特性;偏高岭土在一定程度上能够恢复冻融循环导致的灰土力学性能损失,降低冰晶体产生的孔隙;灰土强度达到最优后,其强度随着石灰的增加而降低,而经偏高岭土改良后其强度将继续增加;火山灰反应比灰土碳化过程消耗更多的水分,有效提高了灰土的抗冻性能。  相似文献   

6.
Gypsum-based mortars were widely used during the Mudejar artistic period in Spain from the 12th to 16th century. During restoration works, compatibility between the new repair mortars and the original components is essential for an adequate intervention on the monument. The increasing interest of knowing the properties of the gypsum-lime-based mortars for restoration purposes justifies the research carried out. Different mortars compatible with traditional building materials were elaborated by varying the binder proportions, the type of aggregates, the binder/aggregate ratios and the curing time. The main goal of this paper is to characterize the mechanical behaviour and the pore structure of the mortars as a function of curing time. The influence between the different variables used to prepare the mortars and the development of the carbonation process over time is also considered. Mechanical strength and porosity measurements as well as X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis were performed after curing times of 1, 28 and 90 days. The results obtained confirmed a progressive increase in mechanical strength linked to the carbonation of the mortars prepared. Less lime binder and also aggregate contents showed the highest rise in strength over time, related to the highest initial porosity which favoured the carbon dioxide flow. The use of siliceous aggregates (GL-QS mortars) obtained the best results in the development of physico-mechanical properties over curing time. The knowledge obtained from the studied mortars provides practical information to establish a suitable mortar mixture for restoration works on historic buildings and modern architecture where gypsum-lime-based mortars are used.  相似文献   

7.
吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组泥质岩类生烃潜力差异性分析   总被引：10，自引：0，他引：10  
吉木萨尔凹陷芦草沟组为吉木萨尔凹陷最主要的烃源岩,该套烃源岩岩性多样,多为过渡性岩类,为了研究不同泥质岩类生烃潜力特征的差异性,以录井岩芯为基础,将泥质岩类划分为纯泥岩、砂质泥岩、灰质泥岩和云质泥岩四类,并主要从有机地球化学的角度对四类岩性泥岩的生烃潜力特征做出评价。结果表明,纯泥岩有机质丰度较云质泥岩、灰质泥岩、砂质泥岩略高;纯泥岩有机质类型最好,其次是灰质泥岩和云质泥岩,砂质泥岩干酪根类型最差。在此基础上,结合HI分析,认为纯泥岩生烃潜力最高,其次是云质泥岩、砂质泥岩,灰质泥岩生烃潜力最差。  相似文献   

8.
Water (in the solid, liquid and vapour state) is one of the main factors that drive construction materials to deterioration. To assess the quality and durability of a repair rendering mortar, thus ensuring its protective function in the masonry structure, it is fundamental to study the behaviour of this mortar towards water. Mortars were elaborated with a calcitic dry hydrated lime, a calcareous aggregate, a pozzolan, a lightweight aggregate, a water-retaining agent and a plasticiser. The effect of different binder-to-aggregate proportions on the mortars’ hygric behaviour was assessed by performing free water absorption and drying, capillary uptake, hydraulic conductivity and water vapour permeability tests. Another aspect that was considered in the assessment of mortar quality was the drying shrinkage that was measured by means of a non-standardised device. It has been found that a larger amount of water is absorbed by mortars with higher lime content, whilst faster drying and higher permeability to water and water vapour are obtained in mortars with higher aggregate content. The hygric behaviour as well as the drying shrinkage of mortars has been interpreted taking into account the differences in microstructure and pore system between mortars.  相似文献   

9.
《Applied Geochemistry》1999,14(3):283-299
The chemical characteristics, 3H contents and radioactivity of groundwaters from the Sierras Blanca and Mijas (Southern Spain) have been studied in relation to the chemical composition and radioactivity of the aquifer host rocks, and the residence time of the water. The Sierras Blanca and Mijas are made up of calcitic and dolomitic marbles of Triassic age. The groundwaters that drain the calcitic marbles (which outcrop principally in the western Sierra Blanca) have less mineralization, which descreases quickly with recharge (as does the 3H content), and the gross alpha and beta activities are below detection limit. This is due to the short residence time of water inside the aquifers which are conduit flow systems. The waters of the dolomitic marbles (eastern Sierra Blanca and Sierra Mijas) have higher and less variable mineralization and contain greater concentrations of Mg2+, SiO2 and SO2−4 (ions normally associated with slow flows). The 3H contents are more uniform with time (indicating an older age) and there is detectable natural radioactivity, because the waters have a longer residence time in the aquifers, which are diffuse flow systems.  相似文献   

10.
Severe stone deterioration is evident at the Cologne cathedral. In particular, the “Drachenfels” trachyte, which was the building material of the medieval construction period, shows significant structural deterioration as well as massive formation of gypsum crusts. The present article investigates crust formation on limestone, sandstone, and volcanic rock from the Cologne cathedral as well as from the Xanten and Altenberg cathedrals. These three buildings, showing varying degrees of deterioration, are located in different areas and exposed to varying industrial, urban, and rural pollution. Thin laminar and black framboidal crusts form on calcareous as well as silicate stone. The lack of a significant intrinsic calcium and sulfur source for the formation of the gypsum crusts on the Drachenfels trachyte indicates major extrinsic environmental impact: a sufficient offer of SO x from pollutant fluxes as well as external calcium sources (e.g., pollution, mortars, neighboring calcite stones). Chemical analyses reveal strong gypsum enrichment within the crusts as well as higher concentrations of lead and other pollutants (arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin, etc.), which generally can be linked to traffic and industry. The formation of weathering crusts in an industrial environment is clearly distinguishable from that in rural areas. Scanning electron microscopy observations confirm that the total amount of pollution is less at the Altenberg cathedral than at the Cologne and Xanten cathedrals. XRF analyses show that the formation of gypsum occurs in lower amounts at Altenberg. This correlates well with the measured SO2 content and the intensity of the decay at the different locations. Furthermore, the different types of crusts, e.g., framboidal and laminar, can be differentiated and assigned to the different locations. The black weathering crusts on the silicate Drachenfels trachyte contribute to the degradation of the historic building material. They enhance mechanical moisture-related deterioration processes and the decay by chemical corrosion of rock-forming minerals. Although SO2 concentrations in air have shown a strong decrease over the past 30 years, degradation in connection with weathering crusts is still observed. This indicates that not only contemporary or recent emissions, but also past pollutant concentrations have to be considered.  相似文献   

11.
J. Gittins  R.E. Harmer  D.S. Barker   《Lithos》2005,85(1-4):129-139
The concept of compositional bimodality in carbonatites has become widely accepted and has been used to impose restrictions on the composition of carbonatite magmas. We agree that mineralogical bimodality exists in carbonatites (most are either calcitic or dolomitic/ankeritic), but we argue that there is no compositional bimodality. The idea of bimodality is based on the interpretation of a variety of element distribution diagrams which were compiled only from chemical analyses in which SiO2 is < 10 wt.%. All others were rejected. Even with such a restricted data set the case for compositional bimodality is extremely weak, but the inclusion of analyses with higher SiO2 content destroys it completely. Yet these more siliceous compositions must be included, for many carbonatites contain substantial amounts of Fe–Mg silicates which are an essential part of the magmatic mineralogy of the rocks. They account for much of the Mg in carbonatites that are otherwise calcitic. Many such carbonatites contain well in excess of 10 wt.% SiO2. Supporters of the bimodality concept argue that liquids having compositions between calcite and dolomite can precipitate neither calcite nor dolomite because the minimum on the solid solution loops in the system calcite–dolomite permits only a carbonate of intermediate composition. Therefore, it is argued, liquids of such intermediate composition cannot be parental to calcitic and dolomitic carbonatites; their parent magmas must be calcitic and dolomitic. This deduction is incorrect. It is well established that dolomitic liquids have calcite as the liquidus phase over substantial temperature intervals, and that this is followed by dolomite precipitation. Mixed calcite–dolomite carbonatites are explicable in this way. Therefore, dolomitic liquids can be parental to calcitic carbonatites. However, dolomitic carbonatites cannot crystallize from a calcitic liquid. We suggest that intermediate composition carbonatite magmas are probably common. Bimodality in carbonatites is solely mineralogical, not compositional.  相似文献   

12.
Most prehistoric plasters and mortars consist of very small amounts of burnt lime mixed with anthropogenic debris, soil, and sediment. To solve the problem of identification of such small amounts of lime in impure lime plasters, a series of experimental plasters were prepared and studied with petrographic methods. Samples of living floors from five prehistoric sites in Greece were also reanalyzed under the light of the experimental findings and compared with natural calcareous sediment. The most promising features for identifying lime are transitional textures of partially carbonized slaked lime that can be observed in the lime lumps and the binding matrix. They are usually in the form of ill‐crystallized portlandite and calcite mixtures or cryptocrystalline calcite. Well‐reacted calcitic groundmass, shrinkage fractures, and occasionally colloidal forms are also additional indications. The present experimental study shows that lime could be easily produced by heating porous, soft calcareous materials. This would probably account for the very frequent use (in small quantities) of lime in Greek prehistory. Plaster and mortars were made by mixing damp anthopogenic dirt as aggregate and fragments of quicklime, a technique known as “hot mixing.” © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  相似文献   

13.
Repair mortars with different B/Ag (binder/aggregate) ratios and natural stone were studied in order to understand the influence of limestone aggregate on the properties of mortar and to check the compatibility of repair mortar with a porous limestone. Three different types of mortars with three different aggregate contents were evaluated by using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and water saturation method (WSM). Changes in density and uniaxial compressive strength as a function of aggregate content were also recorded. For comparison the properties of the porous limestone were also tested, since it is used in monuments and also as aggregate in the mortar. Tested mortars had average porosities of 27.0 % (±2.0), while oolitic limestone has higher average porosity of 32.2 % (±1.9). The limestone has mainly medium and large pore radii (1–100 μm) while the repair mortars even with high aggregate content has predominantly smaller pores. All but one pure repair mortars have higher uniaxial compressive strength than that of the oolitic limestone. The strength decreases while porosity increases with increasing aggregate content.  相似文献   

14.
High levels of SO2 and particulate pollution enable the rapid development of gypsum-rich weathering crusts in Budapest. Two types of white crusts, thin and thick ones, and two forms of black crusts, laminar and framboidal ones, were studied in limestone buildings of the parliament and Citadella. The percentage of crust cover and damage categories were documented on selected walls. Petrographic, XRD, XRF and sulphur isotope analyses were performed under laboratory conditions to understand the mechanism of crust formation. White crusts found both on exposed and sheltered walls display a calcite-rich layer with gypsum, while black crusts are enriched with gypsum. The sulphur isotopic composition of white and black crusts overlaps, but the crusts are slightly enriched in heavy isotopes compared to rainwater. S content, Si/Al ratios and particulates in black crusts suggest that air pollution (SO2, dust) contributes to black crust formation. The accumulation of sulphur and Zn enrichment of white crusts were also documented indicating that under high pollution levels, even these compound can accumulate on exposed facades.  相似文献   

15.
Shock recovery experiments on MgSO4, CaSO4, and their hydrates (kieserite, epsomite, and bassanite) were performed to investigate shock-induced dehydration and decomposition at shock pressures up to 36 GPa. The recovered solid samples indicated dehydration at pressures below 24 GPa, but no clear evidence was found for possible decomposition of MgSO4 and CaSO4 to produce MgO or CaO as final products. These sulfates and hydrates have been observed on the surface of Mars, and the present experimental results can be applied towards understanding the presence of surface water on Mars and the recycling of water by impacts. This finding that the sulfate hydrates undergo dehydration upon impact, as well as the fact that the sulfates CaSO4 and MgSO4 absorb moisture, suggests the total amount of water on Mars has remained almost unchanged since the time of formation of the planet.  相似文献   

16.
Groundwater of the coastal plain of the Rio de La Plata, Argentina,contains up to 17 g L-1 SO4 and 37 gL-1 TDS. Some of this SO4 is from paleo-seawater intrusion; however, SO4 : Cl ratios can be>2 : 1, and most of the SO4 must, therefore, have another source. Three possible sources were investigated: gypsum, organic matter,and iron sulphides. Dissolved SO4 showed δ34S valuesfrom -7 to 0‰, typical values for S from iron sulphides or organicmatter, but distinct from that of seawater (+22‰). To test whetherthe SO4 was derived from oxidation of reduced S, four 4-mcores were taken from marine sediments of the coastal plain. Two were takenfrom higher, drier areas where the highest dissolved SO4values were encountered, and two were taken from lower, wetter areas thathad much lower SO4 concentrations. Pore waterSO4, Cl and alkalinity were determined; solids were analyzedfor SO4, sulphide-S and organic-S. Sulphide-S was the dominant form of reduced S, averaging about0.5% S in the lower interval (2.5–4 m) of the cores. Sulphidewas absent in the upper 2.5 m in both topographically higher and lowerareas. Sulphate was present in the entire unit in the higher, drier areas,but almost absent in lower areas. Organic-S was insignificant. Our model for the origin of dissolved SO4 is: fine-grainedpyrite was oxidized during hotter or drier periods. Some resulting dissolvedSO4 was precipitated as gypsum. Iron from the pyriteprecipitated as FeOOH. Lower, wetter areas formed over time where recharginggroundwater dissolved most of the gypsum. In higher areas with low hydraulicgradients and high net evapotranspiration, SO4 remained asgypsum and in the dissolved phase. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

17.
Study of the composition, structure and morphology of microaggregates less than 1 mm in size in soils of one of the Behr hillocks revealed a high share of the clay-salt segregations (microaggregates and cutans). It was established that the segregation type depends on the mud content in soil, while the packing of particles, as well as the size and morphology of microaggregates, depend on the content and properties of salts. The clay component in the microaggregates is mainly represented by smectite. Carbonate (calcitic, dolomitic, and ferruginous) clay-salt microaggregates were found in all horizons of the studied soils, except for horizon Ap on the subhillock plain in the former rice paddy. Gypsum clay-salt microaggregates were identified in the salic horizon Bs of soils. The microaggregates in solonchaks were formed with the contribution of Na-Mg-Ca chlorides and sulfates. The formation of clay-salt aggregates promoted high microstructuring of soils and stability of the Behr hillocks under arid climatic conditions.  相似文献   

18.
The Lake Chany complex and nearby lakes in western Siberia (Russian Federation) were studied to constrain the S cycle in these terrestrial lake environments. Surface water chemistry was characterized by Na–SO4–Cl composition, comparable to other inland basins in semi-arid climatic zones associated with marine evaporite-bearing formations at depth. Dissolved sulfates showed elevated δ34S (up to +32.3‰). These values are quite distinct from those in similar saline lakes in northern Kazakhstan, the Aral Sea, Lake Barhashi, and a gypsum deposit in the Altai Mountains. The localized distribution of such a unique S isotopic signature in dissolved SO4 negates both aeolian and catastrophic flooding hypotheses previously suggested for the genesis of the dissolved salts. The probable source of the dissolved SO4 in Lake Chany basin is inherited from hidden saline groundwaters (whose location and origins remain unclear) from eastern Paleozoic ranges with Upper Devonian formations with heavy S isotope values. Post-depositional enrichment of heavy S in the dissolved SO4 from saline sediments may be caused by local activity of SO4-reducing bacteria under the ambient supply of electron donors (dissolved river load organic matter and decaying bacterial mats) in the lake complex. Such microbial processes can remove up to ca. 60% of SO4 from the system. Extensive and intensive evaporation of lake fluids, ca. 40%, was indicated by the progressive enrichment of δ18O values in meteoric water samples collected along the river and lake system. This evaporation process compensates the microbial loss of SO4 dissolved in the incoming river water.  相似文献   

19.
In present study a turbocharged, medium duty compression ignition engine was alternatively fuelled with biodiesel to investigate the changes in particulate matter composition, relative to that taken with diesel fuel. The engine was operated on an AC electrical dynamometer in accordance with an 8-mode, steady-state cycle. The numbers of particles were estimated through electrical low pressure impactor, while sulfates and trace metals were analyzed by ion chromatography and inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy, respectively. Nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxides were measured separately using SEMTECH-DS. Experimental results revealed that, on account of elevated ratios of nitrogen dioxide to nitrogen oxides, mean accumulation mode particles were 42 % lower with biodiesel. On the other hand, nuclei mode particles were higher with biodiesel, owing to heterogeneous nucleation and accounting for an increase in sulfate emissions up to 8 % with biodiesel as compared to diesel. On the average, trace metal emissions were significantly reduced showing 65–85.4 % reduction rates with biodiesel, relative to its counterpart. Further to this, individual congeners such as iron, calcium, and sodium were the predominant elements of the trace metals emitted from engine. The mean relative decrease in iron and calcium was 89–97.8 and 77.6–87 %, respectively, while the relative rise in sodium was in the range of 29–46 % with biodiesel. Further, elements such as zinc, chromium, and aluminum showed substantial abatement, whereas potassium, magnesium, and manganese exhibited irregular trends on account of variable engine loads and speeds during the various modes of cycle.  相似文献   

20.
Saline solution properties, viscosity in particular, are shown to be critical in salt weathering associated with sodium and magnesium sulfate crystallization in porous limestone. The crystallization of sodium and magnesium sulfate within a porous limestone has been studied at a macro- and microscale using different techniques, including mercury intrusion porosimetry, environmental scanning microscopy and X-ray computed tomography. Such analysis enabled the visualization of the crystallization process in situ, and at high magnification, yielding critical information as to where and how salts crystallize. Sodium sulfate decahydrate (mirabilite) tends to crystallize in large pores as euhedral micron-sized crystals formed at low supersaturation near to the surface of the stone. In contrast, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (epsomite) tends to precipitate as anhedral wax-like aggregates formed at high supersaturation and distributed homogeneously throughout the stone pore system filling large and small pores. While the former crystallization behavior resulted in scale formation, the latter led to crack development throughout the bulk stone. Ultimately, the contrasting weathering behavior of the two sulfates is explained by considering differences in flow dynamics of solutions within porous materials that are mainly connected with the higher viscosity of magnesium sulfate saturated solution (7.27 cP) when compared with sodium sulfate saturated solution (1.83 cP). On the basis of such results, new ways to tackle salt weathering, particularly in the field of cultural heritage conservation, are discussed.  相似文献   

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