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1.
This is a report of a symposium organized by the Netherlands Commission for the Upper Mantle Project. The data relative to the generation of the western Mediterranean Sea basins, presented during this symposium, are summarized in the Appendix. Several modes of origin have been discussed: 1. (1) the basins are remnants of a former larger ocean; 2. (2) they are formed in the wake of drifting continental blocks; 3. (3) by an erosion and denudation of a continental crust; 4. (4) by an upheaval and later subsidence of an ocean floor; or 5. (5) by sub crustal erosion of a continental crust.
It is concluded that, although many data are in agreement with the drift model, this process cannot have been the sole agent in the generation of the basins. 相似文献
2.
Extrusion temperatures for basaltic lavas in the Permo-Carboniferous Oslo Rift, estimated from whole rock major element compositions, are estimated to be 1270 to 1340°C. This means that magmatism during the Oslo rifting event was not associated with a large temperature anomaly in the underlying upper mantle. Partial melting is believed to be caused by a combination of crustal extension, a weak temperature anomaly in the underlying asthenosphere, and/or high fluid-contents in the mantle source region (“wet-spot”). Petrological and gcochemical data imply that large masses of cumulate rocks were deposited in the deep crust during the Oslo rifting event. The densities and seismic velocities ( Vp) of these cumulate rocks are estimated to be 2.8–3.5 g/cm 3 and 7.5–8.0 km/s. A rough estimate suggests that cumulus minerals alone account for a net transfer of at least 2 × 10 17 kg of magmatic material from the mantle into the deep crust. In addition comes material representing 1. (a) cumulate minerals corresponding to eroded magmatic surface and subsurface rocks 2. (b) intercumulus material, and 3. (c) magmas crystallized to completion in the deep crust.
Estimates based exclusively on geophysical data tend to underestimate the true transfer of mass into the lower crust as gabbroic cumulate rocks, and melts crystallizing to completion in the lower crust have densities and seismic velocities similar to those of lower crustal wallrocks. 相似文献
3.
Whether monitoring crustal movements in localized volcanic areas along known fault lines, or over large crustal-movement areas, the geodesist has been restricted by the measurement accuracy of the instruments used, the accumulation of errors, the lack of reliable air refraction information and the problem of finding proper measurement procedures and mathematical solutions to assure that the inherent errors of the measurement-mathematical procedures do not exceed any conceivable ground movement. Recent technological advances have placed new instruments and systems at the disposal of the geodesist, so that is now feasible to measure and analyze these micro and macro crustal movements within the accuracies required. The paper describes three such systems: 1. (1) The Wild Electronic Theodolite T-2000 with a highly precise distance-measurement instrument, the DI-4S, together with a data collector, the GRE-3, which are connected to a computer and a plotter to measure and analyze both micro and macro crustal movements. 2. (2) The Wild NAK-2 level with an antimagnetic compensator which increases the accuracy in the height/velocity monitoring of vertical crustal movements by virtual elimination of the influence of natural or man-made magnetic fields on the automatic level. 3. (3) The use of analytical photogrammetry employing both terrestrial and aerial photography to monitor crustal movements.
By taking advantage of these new instruments and systems, the scientists capability to provide crustal movement data for use in the analysis and prediction of micro or macro crustal movement is greatly enhanced. 相似文献
4.
During the past two decades deep seismic sounding measurements have been carried out in western and southern Europe, mainly using the refraction method. These investigations were performed partly on a national basis but as well within international cooperative programs under the sponsorship of the European Seismological Commission. In France, a systematic study has been executed to determine the main feature of deep structures under the Central Massif and the Paris Basin. In the Forez and Margeride regions, the sub-crustal velocity is lower (7.2 km/sec) than the normal value (8.0 km/sec) observed in the adjacent areas. The central and southern part of Western Germany is covered by an extensive network of refraction profiles. The crustal thickness varies, similarly to France, from 25 to 35 km. A great amount of deep reflection data was obtained by commercial and special reflection work. The crust beneath the Rhinegraben area shows the typical “rift system” structure with a low subcrustal velocity (7.4–7.7 km/sec). Very intensive refraction work has been carried out in the Alpine area. The maximum crustal thickness found near the axis of the negative gravity anomaly is about 55–60 km. Furthermore, a clear lowvelocity layer at a depth between 10 and 30 km has been detected. A key position with regard to the geotectonic structure of the Alps is held by the zone of Ivrea characterized by a pronounced gravity high. From the refraction work it may be concluded that there material of the lower crust and the upper mantle (7.2–7.5 km/sec) is overlying a layer of extremely low velocity (5.0 km/sec) which is interpreted as sialic crust. Three years ago, a systematic study of crustal structure of the Italian peninsula has been started. Reversed profiles were observed on Sicily, in Calabria, and in Puglia. On Sicily, the structure is very complicated; the crust of the western part looks like a transition between a continental and oceanic structure whereas the eastern side shows a continental-type crust. In Calabria and Puglia, the crustal thickness has been determined to be about 25–35 km. 相似文献
5.
Seismic refraction profiles completed in the past twenty years reveal that the top of the basement complex generally lies near sea level in East Antarctica but typically 2 or 3 km below sea level in West Antarctica. Throughout much of East Antarctica the thickness of the layer overlying the basement complex is less than half a kilometer, although a Phanerozoic sequence more than 1 km thick probably underlies the ice at the South Pole. Throughout central West Antarctica, on the other hand, a section one to several kilometers thick generally overlies the basement complex. The observed sedimentary section is no more than one half kilometer thick on either side of the Transantarctic Mountains. Rocks with high seismic velocities typical of the lower continental crust occur within a few kilometers of the surface on both sides of the Transantarctic Mountains. This occurrence lends support to the hypothesis of an abrupt increase in crustal thickness between West and East Antarctica. In 1969, deep seismic soundings were carried out by the 14th Soviet Antarctic Expedition near the coast of Queen Maud Land. The crustal thickness was found to be about 40 km near the mountains, decreasing to about 30 km near the coast. In the top 15 km of the crust there is a gradual downward increase in P-wave velocity from 6.0 to 6.3 km/sec. The average velocity through the crust is 6.4 km/sec and the measured velocity below the M-discontinuity is 7.9 km/sec. At the southwestern margin of the Ronne Ice Shelf, near-vertical reflections from the M-discontinuity have been recorded. A mean P-wave velocity of 6 km/sec in the crust was measured, leading to an estimated depth to M of 24 km below sea level. Seismic surface wave dispersion studies indicate a mean crustal thickness of about 30 km in West Antarctica and about 40 km in East Antarctica. The dispersion data also show that group velocities across East Antarctica are much closer to those along average continental paths than to those across the Canadian shield. The results thus support other indications that central East Antarctica is not a simple crystalline shield. P′P′-reflections beneath the continent support the existence of a low-velocity channel for P-waves, but show no significant difference in deep structure between Antarctica and other continents. 相似文献
6.
There have been eight large-scale refraction experiments in Australia during the last fifteen years. P 1 velocities derived from these experiments are significantly higher in the Precambrian shield region than in eastern Australia. P n-velocities are also higher beneath the shield, and appear to increase systematically from east to west across the continent. There is good evidence for an intermediate layer in all parts of Australia, with an average depth of about 20 km to the Conrad discontinuity. The crustal thickness has an average value of about 40 km, and the observed variations in thickness are apparently unrelated to topography in most cases. 相似文献
7.
The early Cretaceous thermal perturbation beneath the eastern continental margin of the Indian shield resulted in the eruption
of the Rajmahal Traps. To understand the impact of the magmatic process that originated in the deep mantle on the lower crustal
level of the eastern Indian shield and adjoining Bengal basin the conspicuous gravity anomalies observed over the region have
been modelled integrating with available geophysical information. The 3-D gravity modelling has delineated 10–15 km thick
high-density ( ρ = 3.02 g/cm 3) accreted igneous layer at the base of the crust beneath the Rajmahal Traps. Thickness of this layer varies from 16 km to
the west of the Rajmahal towards north to about 12 km near Kharagpur towards south and about 18 km to the east of the Raniganj
in the central part of the region. The greater thickness of the magmatic body beneath the central part of the region presents
itself as the locus of the potential feeder channel for the Rajmahal Traps. It is suggested that the crustal accretion is
the imprint of the mantle thermal perturbation, over which the eastern margin of the eastern Indian shield opened around 117
Ma ago. The nosing of the crustal accretion in the down south suggests the possible imprint of the subsequent magmatic intrusion
along the plume path. 相似文献
8.
From densely covered seismic refraction data obtained in 1978 (Urach experiment) and 1984 (“Schwarzer Zollern-Wald” experiment) and from seismic reflection data and results from previous refraction investigations, a three-dimensional crustal model of southwest Germany was derived. Travel-time and amplitude information of seismic refraction data were interpreted with two-dimensional forward modeling (ray tracing) to calculate two crustal cross sections in southwest Germany. These results fill a gap in the existing data and enabled the construction of a detailed three-dimensional crustal model.While seismically the upper crust is laterally homogeneous (5.9–6.0 km/s) throughout the area, the middle and lower crust show pronounced lateral variations in thickness, velocity, and reflectivity. The Moho is a flat surface at a relatively shallow depth (25–26 km). We classify the middle and lower crust of southwest Germany into two characteristic crustal types. Type I consists of a mid-crustal low-velocity zone (5.4–5.8 km/s) overlying a thick (> 10 km), high-velocity (6.6–6.8 km/s) lower crust. Type II has no prominent mid-crustal low-velocity zone, and a thin (< 10 km), low-velocity (6.3–6.4 km/s) lower crust. The crustal types correlate with the major geologic units exposed in the area: Type I is present beneath the Black Forest, forming the eastern flank of the Rhinegraben and beneath the Swabian Jura, while Type II is present beneath the intervening Triassic sediments. Beneath the South German Molasse Basin, a low-velocity zone is also present in the upper middle-crust. Seismic reflection investigations have shown that the lower crust in southwest Germany comprises a stack of layers of alternating high- and low-velocities. The lateral variation of the reflectivity of this laminated lower crust has been recognized even on refraction data. We found that high-reflectivity of the lower crust correlates to high average velocity (6.7–6.8 km/s) in the lower crust (Type I). Thus, the average velocity of the lower crust in southwest Germany seems to be an indicator of the intensity of its lamination. The uppermost mantle has a velocity of 8.3 km/s in the area and a strong, positive velocity gradient. 相似文献
9.
The Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic geology of the eastern Klamath Mountains (N California) is characterized by three major magmatic events of Ordovician, Late Ordovician to Early Devonian, and Permo-Triassic ages. The Ordovician event is represented by a calc-alkalic island-arc sequence (Lovers Leap Butte sequence) developed in the vicinity of a continental margin. The Late Ordovician to Early Devonian event consists of the 430–480 Ma old Trinity ophiolite formed during the early development of a marginal basin, and a series of low-K tholeiitic volcanic suites (Lovers Leap Basalt—Keratophyre unit, Copley and Balaklala Formations) belonging to intraoceanic island-arcs. Finally, the Permo-Triassic event gave rise to three successives phases of volcanic activity (Nosoni, Dekkas and Bully Hill) represented by the highly differentiated basalt-to-rhyolite low-K tholeiitic series of mature island-arcs. The Permo-Triassic sediments are indicative of shallow to moderate depth in an open, warm sea. The geodynamic evolution of the eastern Klamath Mountains during Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic times is therefore constrained by the geological, petrological and geochemical features of its island-arcs and related marginal basin. A consistent plate-tectonic model is proposed for the area, consisting of six main stages: 1. (1) development during Ordovician times of a calc-alkalic island-arc in the vicinity of a continental margin; 2. (2) extrusion during Late Ordovician to Silurian times of a primitive basalt-andesite intraoceanic island-arc suite, which terminated with boninites, the latter suggest rifting in the fore-arc, followed by the breakup of the arc; 3. (3) opening and development of the Trinity back-arc basin around 430–480 Ma ago; 4. (4) eruption of the Balaklala Rhyolite either in the arc or in the fore-arc, ending in Early Devonian time with intrusion of the 400 Ma Mule Mountain stock; 5. (5) break in volcanic activity from the Early Devonian to the Early Permian; and 6. (6) development of a mature island-arc from the Early Permian to the Late Triassic.
The eastern Klamath Mountains island-arc formations and ophiolitic suite are part of the “Cordilleran suspect terranes”, considered to be Gondwana margin fragments, that have undergone large northward translations before final collision with the North American craton during Late Mesozoic or Cenozoic times. These eastern Klamath Mountains island-arcs could be associated with the paleo-Pacific oceanic plate that led to accretion of these allochthonous terranes to the American margin. 相似文献
10.
We present results from a seismic refraction experiment on the northern margin of the Guayana Shield performed during June 1998, along nine profiles of up to 320 km length, using the daily blasts of the Cerro Bolívar mines as energy source, as well as from gravimetric measurements. Clear Moho arrivals can be observed on the main E–W profile on the shield, whereas the profiles entering the Oriental Basin to the north are more noisy. The crustal thickness of the shield is unusually high with up to 46 km on the Archean segment in the west and 43 km on the Proterozoic segment in the east. A 20 km thick upper crust with P-wave velocities between 6.0 and 6.3 km/s can be separated from a lower crust with velocities ranging from 6.5 to 7.2 km/s. A lower crustal low velocity zone with a velocity reduction to 6.3 km/s is observed between 25 and 25 km depth. The average crustal velocity is 6.5 km/s. The changes in the Bouguer Anomaly, positive (30 mGal) in the west and negative (−20 mGal) in the east, cannot be explained by the observed seismic crustal features alone. Lateral variations in the crust or in the upper mantle must be responsible for these observations. 相似文献
11.
A seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection experiment was undertaken in the Levant Basin, eastern Mediterranean. Two roughly east–west profiles extend from the continental shelf of Israel toward the Levant Basin. The northern profile crosses the Eratosthenes Seamount and the southern profile crosses several distinct magnetic anomalies. The marine operation used 16 ocean bottom seismometers deployed along the profiles with an air gun array and explosive charges as energy sources. The results of this study strongly suggest the existence of oceanic crust under portions of the Levant Basin and continental crust under the Eratosthenes Seamount. The seismic refraction data also indicate a large sedimentary sequence, 10–14 km thick, in the Levant Basin and below the Levant continental margin. Assuming the crust is of Cretaceous age, this gives a fairly high sedimentation rate. The sequence can be divided into several units. A prominent unit is the 4.2 km/s layer, which is probably composed of the Messinian evaporites. Overlying the evaporitic layer are layers composed of Plio–Pleistocene sediments, whose velocity is 2.0 km/s. The refraction profiles and gravity and magnetic models indicate that a transition from a two layer continental to a single-layer oceanic crust takes place along the Levant margin. The transition in the structure along the southern profile is located beyond the continental margin and it is quite gradual. The northern profile, north of the Carmel structure, presents a different structure. The continental crust is much thinner there and the transition in the crustal structure is more rapid. The crustal thinning begins under western Galilee and terminates at the continental slope. The results of the present study indicate that the Levant Basin is composed of distinct crustal units and that the Levant continental margin is divided into at least two provinces of different crustal structure. 相似文献
12.
Recently, two diverse seismic techniques were applied independently to the study of the crustal structure of the Cumberland Plateau, eastern Tennessee. One involved a reinterpretation of a refraction experiment performed in 1965 by the U.S. Geological Survey, consisting of two 400 km long, reversed refraction lines. The other entailed the inversion of broadband teleseismic P waveforms recorded at a single three-component broadband station, RSCP, located at the intersection of the two refraction profiles. A comparison of the two sets of velocity profiles revealed many similarities and some significant differences. Both sets of velocity models consist of three major crustal layers: (1) an upper crust ( Vp = 6.1–6.4 km/s) down to about 17 km, (2) a mid-crust ( Vp = 6.7–6.9 km/s) between 17 and 40 km depth, (3) a lower crust ( Vp = 7.2–7.4 km/s) from 40 to 51 km depth. The refraction models have linear transition zones up to 11 km thick at the base of each layer, whereas the teleseismic models have more irregular transition zones at the base of the mid- and lower crust. The differences in the results of these studies are attributed to the differing frequency bandwidths of the data sets; the predominant sensitivity of the teleseismic data to shear velocities, compared to compressional velocities for the refraction data; and the different analysis procedures involved in each method. Nevertheless, the similarities indicate that the teleseismic waveform method with broadband data is capable of retreiving comparable crustal information as the Cumberland Plateau refraction survey. In addition, it provides the kind of complementary information required to constrain the composition of the continental lower crust and uppermost mantle. 相似文献
13.
We herein present a new seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection profile that crosses the Songpan–Ganzi terrane, the Animaqing suture zone and the eastern Kunlun mountains (comprised of the South Kunlun and Middle Kunlun blocks separated by the Middle Kunlun fault). The profile is 380 km long and extends from Moba to Guide in eastern Tibet. The crustal thickness is about 62 km under the Songpan–Ganzi terrane, 62–64 km under the South Kunlun, and 60 km under the Middle Kunlun block. The Songpan–Ganzi flysch seems to be present up to a depth of 15 km south of the Animaqing suture zone, and up to a depth of 10 km in the Middle Kunlun block, with thicknesses elsewhere that depend on assumptions about the likely lithologies. The profile exhibits clear lateral variations both in the upper and lower crust, which are indicative of different crustal blocks juxtaposed by the Kunlun fault system. Whether or not the Songpan–Ganzi flysch was originally deposited on oceanic crust, at the longitude of our profile (100°E) it is now underlain by continental crust, and the presence of continental crust beneath the Songpan–Ganzi terrane and of a continental arc under the South Kunlun block suggest Paleozoic continent–continent arc collision in the eastern Kunlun Mountains. Comparison of crustal velocity columns from all wide-angle seismic profiles across the eastern Kunlun mountains indicates a remarkable west-to-east change in the Moho topography across the Kunlun fault system (15–20 km Moho step at 95°E, but only 2–5 km along our profile at 100°E). Lower-crustal thickness of the Kunlun terranes is rather uniform, about 35 km, from 80°–95°E, which suggests that similar thrust-thickening processes have played a role where the Qaidam Basin abuts the Kunlun fault, but thins to 20–25 km at 100°E, east of the Qaidam Basin. The increased crustal thickness from 93° to 98°E compared to that at 100°E may be due to the differences in the thickness of the crust of the two plates before their collision, and/or largely achieved by thickening of the lower crust, perhaps indicating a crustal flow mechanism operating more strongly in the western region. 相似文献
14.
15011993 AbstractIn 1990–1991 the LITHOPROBE project completed 450 km of seismic reflection profiles across the late Archaean crust of the southwestern Superior province. The results define a broad three-fold division of crust: upper crust in the Abitibi greenstone belt is non-reflective and is a 6–8 km veneer of volcanic and plutonic supracrustal rocks, whereas, in the sediment-gneiss dominated Pontiac subprovince, upper crust comprises shallow northwest-dipping turbidite sequences; mid-crust, in both the Abitibi and the Pontiac subprovinces, is interpreted as imbricate sequences of metasedimentary and metaplutonic rocks; lower crust in both subprovinces has a horizontal layer parallel strycture which may represent interleaved mafic-intermediate gneisses. The seismic signature of the northern Abitibi greenstone belt may be represented in an exposed 25 km crustal section in the Kapuskasing stuctural zone. Preliminary tectonic models based on the seismic data are consistent with a plate-tectonic scenario involving oblique subduction and imbrication of sedimentary, plutonic and volcanic sequences. The northern Abitibi supracrustal sequences either represent an allochthon, or overlie an allochthonous underthrust metasedimentary and plutonic sequence which may be equivalent to a metasedimentary subprovince such as the Pontiac or Quetico. Seismic velocities have yet to be defined. However, crustal thicknesses are relatively constant at 35–40 km. The thinnest crust is adjacent to the Grenville Front where Moho is very well defined. 相似文献
15.
Initial Pb isotopic compositions have been determined for potassium feldspar from ca. 2.58 to 2.62 Ga plutonic rocks in the southern and central Slave Province of northwestern Canada to evaluate the extent of recycling of ancient crust within the province. Large differences in initial Pb compositions were measured which correlate with geographical areas of the province. Plutons in the east-central part of the province have initial compositions only slightly more radiogenic than estimated mantle values ( 207Pb/ 204Pb 14.8–14.9), and were dominantly deruved from juvenile crustal sources. In contrast, plutons in the Point Lake and western Contwoyto Lake areas of the western Slave Province have radiogenic compositions ( 207Pb/ 204Pb 15.1–15.2), and indicate significant recycling of pre-3.5 Ga crust. The Pb data support previous interpretations, based on Nd isotopes, for a major isotopic boundary in the central part of the province. Granites from the southern part of the province, near Yellowknife, have intermediate compositions which indicate: (1) the age of the protolith to the granitoids in the Yellowknife area is younger than at Point Lake, but older than in the eastern Slave; or (2) the granitoids in the Yellowknife area contain a mixture of an older Point Lake-type component and younger crust. The absence of pre-3.2 Ga crust in the Yellowknife area and lack of evidence for pre-2.8 Ga inherited zircons in the Yellowknife granitoids favour the former possibility. Evidence for recycling of ancient crustal sources, such as the Acasta Gneiss, is limited to a relatively small area of the west-central part of the province, suggesting that Acasta aged, or derived, crust is not widespread in the province. The marked regionality of isotopic composition may reflect a basement in the western part of the province which is itself a collage of crust of different age, being younger (ca 3.2-2.9) in the south, relative to the Point Lake region (3.9-3.2 Ga). 相似文献
16.
Simultaneous inversion of teleseismic data results in a model for the western branch of the East African Rift system between 1°S and 10°N characterized by a 35 km crust and thin high-velocity lid, overlying a channel possessing both low S and low P velocities (4.47 and 7.69 km/sec, respectively). A strong reflector at 140 km depth marks the boundary to high-velocity material (4.67 and 8.44 km/sec, respectively).The eastern branch has a crustal thickness of 40 km and is characterized by low S velocities, 4.43 km/sec in the lid to a depth of 78 km, 4.09–4.21 km/sec in a channel which extends to 161 km depth. The S velocities remain relatively low at greater depths, but cannot be precisely determined because of the limited resolution.We have interpreted these and other geophysical data as due to a diapiric intrusion of material with a high pyroxene content and possibly with some low-density eclogite, coming from the mesosphere. A mushroom of this rock has stalled below the western branch at about 55 km below the surface and is cooling. The diapirism in the eastern branch has broken through to the surface. The mantle of the African shield to the west of the Rift shows seismic velocities which indicate that it is depleted in basaltic components. 相似文献
17.
Within the frame of the German-French project ANNA-1970, two long refraction profiles were investigated north and south of the island of Majorca. For the southern Balearic Basin an oceanic crust can be derived from the travel-time curves consisting of a 4.0 km thick Cenozoic sedimentary layer with: Vp = 2.35 (km/sec) + 0.35 (sec−1) × Z (km) and a 5 km thick layer with: Vp = 4.0 (km/sec) + 0.28 (sec−1) × Z (km) The transition to the upper mantle takes place at a depth of 12 km. Directly south of Majorca a crustal thickening was measured which may be caused by the process of crustal shortening. P]In the northern Balearic Basin a faulted transitional type of crust has been observed indicating probably an embryonic and juvenile ocean expansion. 相似文献
18.
Rotation and progressive strain have been studied for a sheet embedded in a matrix which undergoes rotational three-dimensional strain under constant volume conditions. The mathematics gives explicit information on the following features: 1. (1) The length and position (relative to a defined coordinate system) of the principal axes of the strain ellipsoid at any stage of the progressive deformation. 2. (2) The position and length of the principal axes in any plane intersecting the strain ellipsoid, also at any stage of the deformation. 3. (3) The position and length of passive markers which initially coincided with the principal axes in an intersecting plane. This is of consequence for the distinction between passively rotating structures and actively forming structures. 4. (4) The shear strain parallel to an intersecting plane or sheet, as indicated by the angular difference between the normal to an intersecting plane at any time and the marker at the same time which initially, however, was parallel to the normal. This layer-parallel shear causes boudins to rotate and the axial plane of buckles to tilt.
The relationships have been expressed quantitatively in the bulk of the paper and illustrated in diagrams. The analysis presented is basic for the study of the deformational behavior of competent sheets of rocks embedded in less competent ones. 相似文献
19.
Since 1958, about ninety seismic refraction/wide angle reflection profiles, with a cumulative length of more than sixty thousand kilometers, have been completed in mainland China. We summarize the results in the form of (1) a new contour map of crustal thickness, (2) fourteen representative crustal seismic velocity–depth columns for various tectonic units, and, (3) a Pn velocity map. We found a north–south-trending belt with a strong lateral gradient in crustal thickness in central China. This belt divides China into an eastern region, with a crustal thickness of 30–45 km, and a western region, with a thickness of 45–75 km. The crust in these two regions has experienced different evolutionary processes, and currently lies within distinct tectonic stress fields. Our compilation finds that there is a high-velocity (7.1–7.4 km/s) layer in the lower crust of the stable Tarim basin and Ordos plateau. However, in young orogenic belts, including parts of eastern China, the Tianshan and the Tibetan plateau, this layer is often absent. One exception is southern Tibet, where the presence of a high-velocity layer is related to the northward injection of the cold Indian plate. This high-velocity layer is absent in northern Tibet. In orogenic belts, there usually is a low-velocity layer (LVL) in the crust, but in stable regions this layer seldom exists. The Pn velocities in eastern China generally range from 7.9 to 8.1 km/s and tend to be isotropic. Pn velocities in western China are more variable, ranging from 7.7 to 8.2 km/s, and may display azimuthal anisotropy. 相似文献
20.
In May 2002, we collected a new crustal refraction profile from Battle Mountain, Nevada across western Nevada, the Reno area, Lake Tahoe, and the northern Sierra Nevada Mountains to Auburn, CA. Mine blasts and earthquakes were recorded by 199 Texan instruments extending across this more than 450-km-long transect. The use of large mine blasts and the ultra-portable Texan recorders kept the field costs of this profile to less than US$10,000. The seismic sources at the eastern end were mining blasts at Barrick's GoldStrike mine. The GoldStrike mine produced several ripple-fired blasts using 8000–44,000 kg of ANFO each, a daily occurrence. First arrivals from the larger GoldStrike blasts are obvious to distances of 300 km in the raw records. First arrivals from a quarry blast west of the survey near Watsonville, CA, located by the Northern California Seismic Network with a magnitude of 2.2, can be picked across the recording array to distances of 600 km. The Watsonville blast provides a western source, nearly reversing the GoldStrike blasts. A small earthquake near Bridgeport, CA. also produced pickable P-wave arrivals across the transect, providing fan-shot data. Arrivals from M5 events in the Mariana and Kuril Islands also appear in the records. This refraction survey observes an unexpectedly deep crustal root under the northern Sierra Nevada range, over 50 km in thickness and possibly centered west of the topographic crest. Pn delays of 4–6 s support this interpretation. At Battle Mountain, Nevada, we observe anomalously thin crust over a limited region perhaps only 150 km wide, with a Moho depth of 19–23 km. Pn crossover distances of less than 80 km support this anomaly, which is surrounded by observations of more normal, 30-km-thick crust. A 10-km-thick and high-velocity lower-crustal “pillow” is an alternative hypothesis, but unlikely due to the lack of volcanics west of Battle Mountain. Large mine and quarry blasts prove very effective crustal refraction sources when recorded with a dense receiver array, even over distances exceeding 600 km. New elastic synthetic seismogram modeling suggests that Pn can be strong as a first arrival, easing the modeling and interpretation of crustal refraction data. Fast eikonal computations of first-arrival time can match pickable Pn arrival times. 相似文献
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