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1.
Magellan radar image data of Sapas Mons, a 600 km diameter volcano located on the flanks of the Arla Rise, permit the distinction of widespread volcanic units on the basis of radar properties, morphology, and spatial and inferred temporal relations, each representing a stage or phase in the evolution of the volcano. Six flow units were identified and are arranged asymmetrically about the volcano. Although there is some evidence for overlapping of units, the stratigraphy clearly indicates a younging upwards sequence. The estimated volume of this 2.4 km high volcano is 3.1 × 104 km3, which is comparable to the largest Hawaiian shield (Mauna Loa, 4.25 × 104 km3), but it is significantly less than an estimated volume for the entire Hawaiian-Emperor chain (1.08 × 106 km3) and less than the lower diameter (100 × 150 km) island of Hawaii (11.3 × 104 km3). Although it is difficult to clearly identify a single lava flow, estimates of apparent single flow volumes range from 4 km3 (for an average unit 5 flow of 3.4 km width, 10 m thickness, and 121 km length) to almost 59 km3 (for a 17.8 km wide, l0 m thick, 330 km long unit 1 flow). Estimates of total volumes for the units show that four of the six flow units have volumes that are within a factor of 1.2 of each other, one unit is approximately three times more voluminous, and the latest unit has a very small volume. Flows within a given unit are very distinct relative to flows in other units with respect to average lengths, aspect ratio, radar brightness, and planimetric outline. There is a weak distinction in rms slope between units and emissivity is correlated with altitude, not unit boundaries. A pair of 25 km diameter scalloped-margin domes occur at the summit and are the source of the last stage of eruptions on Sapas; steep fronts and high aspect ratios suggest that associated flows may have had a high viscosity. Graben form a circumferential structure 75–100 km in diameter surrounding the summit domes and are interpreted to be indicative of subsidence over a central magma reservoir. Radial fractures with associated small edifices cut the lower flanks of the edifice but are not observed within the summit ring of graben; these are interpreted to be the expression of near-surface dykes and may have been emplaced during a period of enhanced activity that correlates with the most voluminous flow unit. Unlike at Hawaii, however, these dykes and small edifices do not seem to be the source of significant flank eruptions. Although some effusive activity may have accompanied their emplacement, the majority of lava flows at Sapas appear to be radial to a single, near-summit point located between the two summit domes.Calculated effusion rates range from 1.5 × 103 m3/s to 3.1 × 105 m3/s; these values suggest that rates were high compared with the Earth and decreased with time. These rates, and the volumes calculated, give eruption durations for the various units that range from 18 days to over 20 years. If eruption is caused by the influx of magma from depth and rupture of an overpressurized chamber, this suggests a variable flux over the history of the volcano. The late-stage eruptions which formed the summit domes are interpreted to be the result of fractional crystallization and/or volatile build-up in the chamber, following a period of decreased supply from depth.Local topography and gravity, as well as regional geology support the presence of a mantle plume at Sapas. The similar properties of large volumes of magma over the total history of the volcano, as well as the prolonged period of magma supply and gradual waning, are consistent with a plume origin. These inferences and the observations allow us to characterise the history of the volcano as follows: arrival of the mantle plume caused uplift of topography and surrounding plains formation: continued supply of smaller volumes of material permitted construction of the edifice; development of a magma reservoir (predicted by theory to form at shallow depths) modified eruption characteristics by permitting storage and homogenization of magma; unbuffered conditions prevailed for the majority of eruptions, producing flows of similar volumes but decreasing flow lengths; a period early on of enhanced supply led to buffered chamber conditions, resulting in the eruption of the voluminous flow unit and the emplacement of many lateral dykes; evacuations from the chamber and cooling towards the last stages caused distributed summit collapse and formation of the ring graben; and finally the gradual waning of supply allowed evolution of the magma which produced the late-stage, possibly viscous flows and dome construction. Preliminary observation of Sapas and two other volcanoes at different elevations suggests that altitude-dependent chamber development and growth may influence the complexity of lava flows and determine the existence of collapse calderas. Many features at Sapas are representative of large volcanoes on Venus and thus Sapas Mons is a good example of a typical plume-associated edifice. Sapas differs in many ways from Kilauea, a terrestrial type shield volcano, but these differences can be understood in the context of the Venus environment.  相似文献   

2.
New radar images obtained from the Arecibo Observatory (resolution 1.5–4.0 km) for portions of the southern hemisphere of Venus show that: the upland of Phoebe Regio contains the southern extension of Devana Chasma, a rift zone extending 4200 km south from Theia Mons and interpreted as a zone of extension; Alpha Regio, the only large region of tessera within the imaged area, is similar to tessera mapped elsewhere on the planet and covers a smaller percentage of the surface than that observed in the northern high latitudes; the upland made of Ushas, Innini and Hathor Montes consists of three distinct volcanic constructs; Themis Regio is mapped as an ovoid chain of radar-bright arcuate single and double ring structures, edifices and bright lineaments. This area is interpreted as a region of mantle upwelling and on the basis of apparent split and separated features, a zone of localized faulting and extension. Linear zones of deformation in Lavinia Planitia are characterized by lineament belts that are often locally elevated, are similar to ridge belts mapped in the northern high latitudes and are interpreted to be characterized mainly by compression; radar-bright lava complexes within Lavinia Planitia are unique to this part of the planet and are interpreted to represent areas of eruption of high volumes of extremely fluid lava; the upland of Lada Terra is bound to the north by a linear deformation zone interpreted as extensional, is characterized by large ovoids and coronae, is interpreted to be associated with an area of mantle upwelling, and is in contrast to the northern high latitude highland of Ishtar Terra. Regions of plains in the southern hemisphere cover about 78%; of the mapped area and are interpreted to be volcanic in origin. Located within the area imaged (10–78 S) are 52 craters interpreted to be of impact origin ranging from 8 to 157 km in diameter. On the basis of an overall crater density of 0.94 craters/106 km2, it is determined that the age of this part of the Venus surface is similar to the 0.3 to 1.0 billion year age calculated for the equatorial region and northern high latitudes. The geologic characteristics of the portion of the Venus southern hemisphere imaged by Arecibo are generally similar to those mapped elsewhere on the planet. This part of the planet is characterized by widespread volcanic plains, large volcanic edifices, and zones of linear belt deformation. The southern hemisphere of Venus differs from northern high latitudes in that tessera makes up only a small percentage of the surface area and the ovoid chain in Themis Regio is unique to this part of the planet. On the basis of the analysis presented here, the southern hemisphere of Venus is interpreted to be characterized by regions of mantle upwelling on a variety of scales (ovoids, region made up of Ushas, Innini and Hathor Montes), upwelling and extension (Themis Regio) and localized compression (lineament belts in Lavinia Planitia).  相似文献   

3.
Lakshmi Planum is distinctive and unique on the surface of Venus as an expansive (~2 × 106km2), relatively smooth, flat plateau containing two large shield volcanoes and abundant volcanic plains in the midst of a region of extreme relief. It rises 3–5 km above the datum and is surrounded on all sides by bands of mountains interpreted to be of compressional tectonic origin. The major units mapped on Lakshmi are volcanic edifices, smooth, ridged and grooved plains units, and structural units referred to as ridged terrain. Three styles of volcanism are observed to dominate the surface of Lakshmi. Distributed effusive volcanism is associated with extensive plains deposits and many of the small shields, domes and cones mapped within the plateau. Centralized effusive volcanism is primarily associated with the paterae, Colette and Sacajawea, and their circumferential low-shield-forming deposits. The precise origin and evolution of these unusually large and complex structures is not understood, although a catastrophic, explosive origin is unlikely. Pyroclastic volcanism may be represented by a unit referred to as the diffuse halo. The origin and evolution of Lakshmi Planum is closely related to its compressional tectonic environment; volcanism on Lakshmi has occurred synchronously with tectonism in the surrounding orogenic belts. A model for the origin and evolution of Lakshmi Planum consisting of a continuous sequence of convergence and horizontal shortening of crustal segments against a preexisting block of tessera seems best able to account for the elevation, plateau shape and irregular polygonal outline of Lakshmi, as well as the presence of ridged terrain and its resemblance to tessera. Volcanism on Lakshmi is proposed to be the result of basal melting of a thickened crustal root. According to this model, the origin and evolution of Lakshmi Planum has consisted of the following sequence of events: (1) formation of a large, elevated block of tessera surrounded by low-lying plains; (2) convergence and underthrusting of crustal segments to produce peripheral mountain ranges, thickening, and uplift of the plateau; and (3) basal melting of the thickened crust and underthrust material and surface volcanism that occurred synchronously with continued edge deformation.'Geology and Tectonics of Venus', special issue edited by Alexander T. Basilevsky (USSR Acad. of Sci., Moscow), James W. Head (Brown University, Providence). Gordon H. Pettengill (MIT. Cambridge, Massachusetts) and R. S. Saunders (J.P.L., Pasadena).  相似文献   

4.
The age relations between 36 impact craters with dark paraboloids and other geologic units and structures at these localities have been studied through photogeologic analysis of Magellan SAR images of the surface of Venus. Geologic settings in all 36 sites, about 1000 × 1000 km each, could be characterized using only 10 different terrain units and six types of structures. These units and structures form a major stratigraphic and geologic sequence (from oldest to youngest): 1) tessera terrain; 2) densely fractured terrains associated with coronae and in the form of remnants among plains; 3) fractured and ridged plains and ridge belts; 4) plains with wrinkle ridges; 5) ridges associated with coronae annulae and ridges of arachnoid annulae which are contemporary with wrinkle ridges of the ridged plains; 6) smooth and lobate plains; 7) fractures of coronae annulae, and fractures not related to coronae annulae, which disrupt ridged and smooth plains; 8) rift-associated fractures; 9) craters with associated dark paraboloids, which represent the youngest 10% of the Venus impact crater population (Campbellet al., 1992), and are on top of all volcanic and tectonic units except the youngest episodes of rift-associated fracturing and volcanism; surficial streaks and patches are approximately contemporary with dark-paraboloid craters.Mapping of such units and structures in 36 randomly distributed large regions (each 106 km2) shows evidence for a distinctive regional and global stratigraphic and geologic sequence. On the basis of this sequence we have developed a model that illustrates several major themes in the history of Venus. Most of the history of Venus (that of its first 80% or so) is not preserved in the surface geomorphological record. The major deformation associated with tessera formation in the period sometime between 0.5–1.0 b.y. ago (Ivanov and Basilevsky, 1993) is the earliest event detected. In the terminal stages of tessera formation, extensive parallel linear graben swarms representing a change in the style of deformation from shortening to extension were formed on the tessera and on some volcanic plains that were emplaced just after (and perhaps also during the latter stages of the major compressional phase of tessera emplacement. Our stratigraphic analyses suggest that following tessera formation, extensive volcanic flooding resurfaced at least 85% of the planet in the form of the presently-ridged and fractured plains. Several lines of evidence favor a high flux in the post-tessera period but we have no independent evidence for the absolute duration of ridged plains emplacement. During this time, the net state of stress in the lithosphere apparently changed from extensional to compressional, first in the form of extensive ridge belt development, followed by the formation of extensive wrinkle ridges on the flow units. Subsequently, there occurred local emplacement of smooth and lobate plains units which are presently essentially undeformed. The major events in the latest 10% of the presently preserved history of Venus (less than 50 m.y. ago) are continued rifting and some associated volcanism, and the redistribution of eolian material largely derived from impact crater deposits.Detailed geologic mapping and stratigraphic synthesis are necessary to test this sequence and to address many of the outstanding problems raised by this analysis. For example, we are uncertain whether this stratigraphic sequence corresponds to geologic events which were generally synchronous in all the sites and all around the planet, or whether the sequence is simply a typical sequence of events which occurred in different places at different times. In addition, it is currently unknown whether the present state represents a normal consequence of the general thermal evolution of Venus (and is thus representative of the level of geological activity predicted for the future), or if Venus, has been characterized by a sequence of periodic global changes in the composition and thermal state of its crust and upper mantle (in which case, Venus could in the future return to levels of deformation and resurfacing typical of the period of tessera formation).  相似文献   

5.
Detailed mapping in a 14,000,000 km2 area of northwestern Guinevere Planitia and northern Beta Regio bounded by 264°-312°E, 24°-60°N has revealed thousands of long extensional lineaments (graben, fissures and related fractures). These can be grouped into radiating, circumferential and linear systems. Thirty four radiating systems have been identified, of which 16 have radii greater than 300 km and eight have radii greater than 1000 km. Twenty six linear (straight) systems with a length greater than 300 km have been distinguished of which six have a length greater than 1000 km. Linear systems are generally associated with rifts, although some may represent distal portions of radiating systems. In addition, 19 circumferential systems, some associated with coronae, have been identified. The distribution of each system is compared with the host geology in order to place the graben-fissure systems in a regional stratigraphic framework. The majority of systems are: (1) younger than tesserae, ridge belts and densely fractured plains, (2) coeval with, and in many cases, define fracture belts, (3) partially flooded by wrinkle-ridged plains units, and (4) older than smooth and lobate plains units and young rifts. The inventory of radiating graben-fissure systems that we catalogue represents a database of tectono-magmatic centers that complements the centers defined using other criteria, e.g., large volcanoes, coronae, and shield fields. We have attempted to identify those systems that are underlain by dike swarms in order to evaluate their relationship to mantle plumes. At least 11 of the radiating systems extend well beyond any central topographic uplift and are therefore interpreted to be underlain by dike swarms.  相似文献   

6.
Recent high resolution, high incidence angle Arecibo radar images of southern Ishtar Terra and flanking plains of Guinevere and Sedna on Venus reveal details of topographic features resolved by Pioneer Venus. The high incidence angles of Arecibo images favor the detection of surface roughness-related features, and complement recently obtained low incidence angle Venera 15/16 images in which changes in surface topographic slope are well portrayed. Four provinces have been defined on the basis of radar characteristics in Arecibo images and topography. Volcanism and tectonism are the dominant processes in the mapped area, which has an average age of about 0.5–1.0 billion years (Ivanov et al., 1986). These processes vary in relative significance in the mapped provinces and it is likely that geologic activity has occurred simultaneously in all four provinces. On the basis of stratigraphic evidence, however, a general sequence is proposed which represents the major activity in each area. The low predominantly volcanic plains of Guinevere and Sedna Planitiae are the relatively oldest terrain. A major region of complex tectonic deformation, the Southern Ishtar Transition Zone, postdates much of the low plains and delineates the steep-sloped flanks of Ishtar Terra. Lakshmi Planum is characterized by a distinctive volcanic style (large low edifices, calderas, flanking plains) and at least in part postdates the Southern Ishtar Transition Zone. Relatively recent plains-style volcanism occurs locally in Sedna Planitia and embays the Southern Ishtar Transition Zone. Compressional deformation appears to dominate the mountains of the Ishtar plateau, but the nature of the tectonic deformation in the Southern Ishtar Transition Zone is very complex and likely represents a combination of extension, compression and strikeslip deformation. Arecibo data reveal additional coronae in the lowlands, suggesting that corona formation is an even more widespread process than indicated by the Venera data.  相似文献   

7.
I. López 《Icarus》2011,213(1):73-85
Volcanoes on Venus are classified according to size with studies on the stratigraphic position of large volcanoes proposing that most of the large volcanoes postdate the regional volcanic materials. Some studies regarding intermediate volcanoes proposed that some of these volcanic features could be large volcanoes with embayed flow aprons, a situation that would alter the previous stratigraphic considerations about large volcanoes on Venus.In this work I analyze the global population of embayed intermediate-size volcanoes and compare their summits with that of other edifices classified as large volcanoes. Intermediate-size volcanoes are considered embayed when: (1) flows from another source clearly overlap the volcano slopes, and (2) display scarps related to flank-failure processes but with the associated collapse deposits being absent (i.e. interpreted as covered). As result of the survey 88 embayed intermediate-size volcanoes have been catalogued and integrated into a Geographic Information System. These embayed volcanoes have summit sizes and characteristics similar to large volcanoes and, therefore, could be interpreted as possible large volcanoes with their flow aprons embayed. Embayment materials for these volcanoes include all the units present in the history of the volcanic plains and would indicate that this type of central volcanic edifice would occur throughout the geologic history recorded in the venusian plains.  相似文献   

8.
I. Romeo  D.L. Turcotte 《Icarus》2009,203(1):13-19
The areas of volcanic units on Venus have been measured on the 1:5000000 geological maps published by NASA/USGS. These data were used to obtain a frequency-area distribution. The cumulative frequency-area distribution of 1544 specific occurrence of units cover six orders of magnitude from the largest unit (30 × 106 km2) to the smallest (20 km2). The probability distribution function has been calculated. The medium and large volcanic units correlate well with a power-law (fractal) relation for the dependence of frequency on area with a slope of −1.83. There are fewer small units than the expected values provided by the power-law relation. Our measurements cover 21.02% of the planetary surface, 3.59% of the study area was found to be tessera terrain and is excluded from this study of volcanism. The measurements were restricted to areas where geological maps have been published. The analysis was performed on two independent areas of the planet, with a complete coverage of published maps. In both areas the largest volcanic unit covers a significant portion of the surface (58.75% and 63.64%, respectively). For the total measured volcanic units (excluding tessera), these two largest units (that could correspond to the same unit or not) cover the 61.18% and they are stratigraphically superimposed on older volcanic units which cover 3.37% of the area. The remaining area (35.45%) is occupied by younger volcanic units stratigraphically superimposed on the large volcanic unit(s). These results are based on the independent mapping of a large number of geologists with different ideas about the geodynamical evolution of Venus and different criteria for geological mapping. Despite this fact, the presence of these very large units is incompatible with the equilibrium resurfacing models, because their generation at different ages would destroy the crater randomness. Our frequency-area distribution of the mapped volcanic units supports a catastrophic resurfacing due to the emplacement of the largest unit(s) followed by a decay of volcanism. Our data for the frequency-area distribution of volcanic units provide new support for catastrophic resurfacing models. It is difficult to make our observations compatible with equilibrium, steady-state resurfacing models.  相似文献   

9.
Ganymede's grooved terrain likely formed during an epoch of global expansion, when unstable extension of the lithosphere resulted in the development of periodic necking instabilities. Linear, infinitesimal-strain models of extensional necking support this model of groove formation, finding that the fastest growing modes of an instability have wavelengths and growth rates consistent with Ganymede's grooves. However, several questions remain unanswered, including how nonlinearities affect instability growth at large strains, and what role instabilities play in tectonically resurfacing preexisting terrain. To address these questions we numerically model the extension of an icy lithosphere to examine the growth of periodic necking instabilities over a broad range of strain rates and temperature gradients. We explored thermal gradients up to 45 K km−1 and found that, at infinitesimal strain, maximum growth rates occur at high temperature gradients (45 K km−1) and moderate strain rates (10−13 s−1). Dominant wavelengths range from 1.8 to 16.4 km (post extension). Our infinitesimal growth rates are qualitatively consistent with, but an order of magnitude lower than, previous linearized calculations. When strain exceeds ∼10% growth rates decrease, limiting the total amount of amplification that can result from unstable extension. This fall-off in growth occurs at lower groove amplitudes for high-temperature-gradient, thin-lithosphere simulations than for low-temperature-gradient, thick-lithosphere simulations. At large strains, this shifts the ideal conditions for producing large amplitude grooves from high temperature gradients to more moderate temperature gradients (15 K km−1). We find that the formation of periodic necking instabilities can modify preexisting terrain, replacing semi-random topography up to 100 m in amplitude with periodic ridges and troughs, assisting the tectonic resurfacing process. Despite this success, the small topographic amplification produced by our model presents a formidable challenge to the necking instability mechanism for groove formation. Success of the necking instability mechanism may require rheological weakening or strain localization by faulting, effects not included in our analysis.  相似文献   

10.
The structural control of venusian polygonal impact craters   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
M. Aittola  J.J. Leitner  J. Raitala 《Icarus》2010,205(2):356-363
Pre-impact inhomogeneities of the target material sometimes cause the rim of an impact crater to be composed of several straight segments, instead of being circular. The venusian surface hosts 121 such polygonal impact craters (PICs)>12 km in diameter. Their straight rim segments are often parallel to the orientations of the surrounding tectonic structures, particularly those in tessera terrain and young rift zones, as well as the concentric components of coronae. This match is notably more distinct in distances less than two crater diameters between the PICs and the tectonic structures than further away. Surrounding wrinkle ridges, lineaments or radial components of volcano-tectonic features seem to have very little influence on the orientations of PIC rims. These results imply that the formation of straight segments of venusian PIC rims is controlled by pre-existing tectonic structures of the crust, but not by the apparently most surficial ones. Thus, PICs could be used to provide further constraints on the distribution and orientations of zones of weakness in the venusian crust.  相似文献   

11.
We analyze night-time near-infrared (NIR) thermal emission images of the Venus surface obtained with the 1-μm channel of the Venus Monitoring Camera onboard Venus Express. Comparison with the results of the Magellan radar survey and the model NIR images of the Beta-Phoebe region show that the night-time VMC images provide reliable information on spatial variations of the NIR surface emission. In this paper we consider if tessera terrain has the different NIR emissivity (and thus mineralogic composition) in comparison to the surrounding basaltic plains. This is done through the study of an area SW of Beta Regio where there is a massif of tessera terrain, Chimon-mana Tessera, surrounded by supposedly basaltic plains. Our analysis showed that 1-μm emissivity of tessera surface material is by 15–35% lower than that of relatively fresh supposedly basaltic lavas of plains and volcanic edifices. This is consistent with hypothesis that the tessera material is not basaltic, maybe felsic, that is in agreement with the results of analyses of VEX VIRTIS and Galileo NIMS data. If the felsic nature of venusian tesserae will be confirmed in further studies this may have important implications on geochemical environments in early history of Venus. We have found that the surface materials of plains in the study area are very variegated in their 1-μm emissivity, which probably reflects variability of degree of their chemical weathering. We have also found a possible decrease of the calculated emissivity at the top of Tuulikki Mons volcano which, if real, may be due to different (more felsic?) composition of volcanic products on the volcano summit.  相似文献   

12.
《Planetary and Space Science》2007,55(14):2063-2070
Ribbons are regularly spaced, between 2 and 6 km, troughs that exist on venusian tesserae, which are mainly located in, and characterize to, venusian crustal plateaus. Independent of the geological or temporal relations with other features, regularly and similarly spaced ribbons on several tesserae strongly suggest a thermal control on the thickness of the deformed layer. This can be used to constraint the heat flow at the time of ribbon formation, which holds important implications for the viability of the hypotheses that address the origin and evolution of crustal plateaus. For a brittle–ductile transition ∼1–3 km deep (as proposed from ribbon spacing), realistic strain rates, and a present-day surface temperature of 740 K, the implied heat flow is very high, 130–780 mW m−2. If Venus has experienced higher surface temperatures due to climate forcing by massive volcanism, then the heat flow could be greatly reduced. For surface temperatures of 850–900 K the heat flow is 190–560, 60–230 and 20–130 mW m−2 for brittle–ductile transition depths of 1, 2 and 3 km, respectively. Heat flow values around 80–100 mW m−2 are reasonable for venusian hotspots, based on terrestrial analogs, but hardly consistent with coldspot settings. High surface temperatures are also required to maintain the crustal solidus deeper than a few kilometers during the formation of ribbon terrains. For the obtained heat flows, a solidus deeper than ∼30 km (the likely mean value for the crustal thickness) is difficult to achieve. This suggests that a substantial proportion of the crust beneath crustal plateaus was emplaced subsequently to the time when ribbon terrains were formed. Alternatively, at that time a magma reservoir inside the crust could have existed.  相似文献   

13.
In this pre-Magellan review of aeolian processes on Venus we show that the average rate of resurfacing is less than 2 to 4 km/Ga, based on the impact crater size frequency distribution derived from Venera observations, reasonable values of the impact flux, and the assumption of steady state conditions between crater production and obliteration. Viscous relaxation of crater topography, burial by volcanic deposits, tectonic disruption, chemical and mechanical weathering and erosion, and accumulation of windblown sediments probably all contribute to resurfacing. Based on the rate of disappearance of radar-bright haloes around impact craters, the rate of removal of blocky surfaces has been estimated to be about 10–2 km/Ga. Pioneer-Venus altimetry data show that the average relative permittivity (at 17 cm radar wavelength) of the surface is too high for exposure of soils 10 cm deep, except for ~5% of the planet located primarily in tessarae terrains. The tectonically disrupted tessarae terrains may be sites of soil generation caused by tectonic disruption of bedrock and the presence of relatively steep slopes, or they may be terrains that serve as traps for windblown material. The overall impression is that Venus is a geologically active planet, but one dominated by volcanism and tectonism. On the other hand, theoretical considerations and experimental data on weathering and transport of surface materials suggest rather different conditions. Thermochemical arguments have been advanced that show: (1) CO2 and SO2 incorporate into weathering products at high elevation, (2) transport of weathered material by the wind to lower-elevation plains, and (3) re-equilibration of weathered material, releasing both CO2 and SO2. In addition, kinetic data suggest a rate of anhydrite formation of 1 km/Ga, a value comparable to the soil erosion rate on Mars, a planet with an active aeolian environment. Experiments and theoretical studies of aeolian processes show that measured surface winds are capable of moving sand and silt on Venus. Assuming that there is a ready sand supply, the flux could be as high as 2.5 × 10–5 g/cm/s, a value comparable to desert terrains on Earth. In an active aeolian abrasion environment, sand grains could have lifetimes <103 years. In addition, comminuted debris may be cold-welded to surfaces at the same time as abrasion is occurring. Magellan altimetry and SAR observations should allow assessment of which model for venusian surface modification (active vs. inactive surficial processes) is correct, given the global coverage, high spatial resolution, the calibrated nature of the data, and the potential during extended missions of acquiring multiple SAR views of the surface.Geology and Tectonics of Venus, special issue edited by Alexander T. Basilevsky (USSR Acad. of Sci. Moscow), James W. Head (Brown University, Providence), Gordon H. Pettengill (MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts) and R. S. Saunders (J.P.L., Pasadena).  相似文献   

14.
In this study we explore the idea that coronae have formed on Venus as a result of gravitational (Rayleigh-Taylor) instability of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is represented by a system of stratified homogeneous viscous layers (low-density crust over high density mantle, over lower density layer beneath the lithosphere). A small harmonic perturbation imposed on the base of the lithosphere is observed to result in gravitational instability under the constraint of assumed axisymmetry. Topography develops with time under the influence of dynamic stress associated with downwelling or upwelling, and spatially variable crustal thickening or thinning. Topography may therefore be elevated or depressed above a mantle downwelling, but the computed gravity anomaly is always negative above a mantle downwelling in a homogeneous asthenosphere. The ratio of peak gravity to topography anomaly depends primarily on the ratio of crust to lithospheric viscosity. Average observed ratios are well resolved for two groups of coronae (∼40 mgal km−1), consistent with models in which the crust is perhaps 5 times stronger than the lithosphere. Group 3a (rim surrounding elevated central region) coronae are inferred to arise from a central upwelling model, whereas Group 8 (depression) coronae are inferred to arise from central downwelling. Observed average coronae radii are consistent with a lithospheric thickness of only 50 km. An upper low-density crustal layer is 10-20 km thick, as inferred from the amplitude of gravity and topography anomalies.  相似文献   

15.
The details of stratigraphic units and structures making up six coronae and their regional surroundings on Venus were examined using full resolution Magellan images and stereoscopic coverage. Altimetry and stereoscopic coverage were essential in establishing the local stratigraphic relationships and the timing of corona-related topography. The degree of preservation of signatures of earlier corona-related activities and the scale of later corona-related activities vary significantly from corona to corona. We compared the geologic sequence in each corona to regional and global stratigraphic units, placing the coronae in the broader context of the geologic history of Venus. The results of this study were compared with earlier analyses bringing the total number of corona considered to about 15% of the total corona population. We found that corona started forming soon after tessera formation and largely spanned a significant part of the subsequent geologic history of Venus, over about 200–400 million years. Topographic annulae were initiated in early post-tessera time but were largely completely formed by the time of emplacement of regional plains with wrinkle ridges. Some coronae ceased activity by this time, while others continued until closer to the present, although showing evidence of waning activity. Coronae-associated volcanism dominated many coronae during this later stage. Convincing evidence of pre-regional plains corona- related volcanism was not found in the population examined here. We conclude that coronae formed in a two stage process; the first stage (tectonic phase) involved the annular warping of early extensive stratigraphic units of volcanic origin and the second (volcanic phase) involved coronae-related lava flow activity and local fracturing. For the vast majority of coronae, the first tectonic phase was largely complete prior to the emplacement of the regional plains (Pwr, plains with wrinkle ridges). The vast majority of corona-related volcanic activity (emplacement of Pl, lobate flows) occurred subsequent to the emplacement of regional plains. We found no evidence of coronae initiation in substantially later periods of the observed history of Venus. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

16.
We studied north Tyrrhena Terra, an approximately 39,000 km2 area, located in the transition region straddling the Amenthes and Mare Tyrrhenum Mars Chart quadrangles 14 and 22, respectively. The study area comprises ancient terrains with infilled craters, ridges and valleys. Interpretation of orbiter data of ancient terrains is inherently difficult, but valuable information can be obtained using multiple datasets and analyzing various geological features. Using data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera on board Mars Express, complemented by Mars Global Surveyor MOLA DEM and MOC Narrow Angle datasets, we observed and interpreted surface morphologies at a scale suitable for geologic investigation. Morphometric examination of a 31 km diameter large impact crater indicated that tectonism and volcanism were responsible for its morphologic modification. Small impact crater depth/diameter relationships indicated that smooth surfaces of valleys are composed of highly consolidated material. Surface cracks and lobate fronts further suggested that the rocks are volcanic. Examination of tectonic features revealed that in the study area: a dominant NW-SE fabric is related to a ridge/bench-scarp-valley repetition consistent with synthetic and antithetic normal faulting; a NNW-SSE lineament represents the surface expression of normal faulting post-dating all other tectonic features. A weak NE-SW fabric is observable as small sublinear depressions, and at the contact between units internal to one large crater. One 20 km diameter crater in the study area was interpreted to be a caldera, infilled by thick volcanic rock layers. Identification of wrinkle ridges further indicated that thick layered lava flows infilled the main depressions of the study area. The available evidence suggests that the study area underwent multiple episodes of extension and volcanism.  相似文献   

17.
We have mapped 18,000+ circular mounds in a portion of southern Acidalia Planitia using their sizes, shapes, and responses in Nighttime IR. We estimate that 40,000+ of these features could occur in the area, with a distribution generally corresponding to the southern half of the proposed Acidalia impact basin. The mounds have average diameters of about 1 km and relief up to 180 m and most overlie units mapped as Early Amazonian.High resolution images of mound surfaces show relatively smooth veneers, apron-like extensions onto the plains, moats, and concentric circular crestal structures. Some images show lobate and flow-like features associated with the mounds. Albedo of the mounds is generally higher than that of the surrounding plains. Visible and near-infrared spectra suggest that the mounds and plains have subtle mineralogical differences, with the mounds having enhanced coatings or possibly greater quantities of crystalline ferric oxides.Multiple analogs for these structures were assessed in light of new orbital data and regional mapping. Mud volcanism is the closest terrestrial analogy, though the process in Acidalia would have had distinctly martian attributes. This interpretation is supported by the geologic setting of the Acidalia which sits at the distal end of the Chryse-Acidalia embayment into which large quantities of sediments were deposited through the Hesperian outflow channels. In its distal position, Acidalia would have been a depocenter for accumulation of mud and fluids from outflow sedimentation.Thus, the profusion of mounds in Acidalia is likely to be a consequence of this basin’s unique geologic setting. Basinwide mud eruption may be attributable to overpressure (developed in response to rapid outflow deposition) perhaps aided by regional triggers for fluid expulsion related to events such as tectonic or hydrothermal pulses, destabilization of clathrates, or sublimation of a frozen body of water. Significant release of gas may have been involved, and the extensive mud volcanism could have created long-lived conduits for upwelling groundwaters, providing potential habitats for an in situ microbiota.Mud volcanism transports minimally-altered materials from depth to the surface, and mud volcanoes in Acidalia, therefore, could provide access to samples from deep zones that would otherwise be inaccessible. Since the distal setting of Acidalia also would favor concentration and preservation of potentially-present organic materials, samples brought to the surface by mud volcanism could include biosignatures of possible past or even present life. Accordingly, the mounds of Acidalia may offer a new class of exploration target.  相似文献   

18.
R. Greve 《Icarus》2008,196(2):359-367
The martian polar caps feature large chasmata and smaller trough systems which have no counterpart in terrestrial ice sheets. Chasma Boreale cuts about 500 km into the western part of the north-polar cap, is up to 100 km wide and up to 2 km deep. One possible formation mechanism is by a temporary heat source under the ice due to tectono-thermal or volcanic activity, which melts the ice from below. It is demonstrated by model simulations that this process is feasible, a moderately increased heat flux of 0.5-1 W m−2, sustained over at least tens of thousands of years, producing a topographic depression which resembles the real chasma. Associated meltwater discharge rates are small (), but can exceed 10 km3 a−1 if a stronger heat flux of 10 W m−2 is assumed. Local ice-flow velocities during the process of chasma formation can exceed 1 m a−1 at the head and scarps of the chasma. However, if the thermal anomaly shuts down, glacial flow quickly decreases, so that the chasma can stay open for an indefinite amount of time without an ongoing, sustaining process under the climate conditions of the most recent millions of years.  相似文献   

19.
P.M. Schenk  R.R. Wilson 《Icarus》2004,169(1):98-110
Stereo and photoclinometry derived topography of shield-like volcanoes on Io indicate little relief (<3 km) and very low slopes (0.2° to 0.6°). Several shield volcanoes appear to be associated with broad rises of 1 to 3 km, but only 5 shield volcanoes have been identified with steep flank slopes (between 4° and 10°). These steep slopes are restricted to within 20-30 km of the summit, but where discernable, most of the lava flows observed on these edifices occur on the outer flanks where slopes are less than a degree. Despite their abundance, ionian shield volcanoes are among the flattest in the Solar System. The steepest volcanoes on Io are most comparable to large venusian shield volcanoes. Using simplistic Bingham rheologies we estimate the viscosity and yield strengths of ionian lavas. Yield strengths are estimated at 101-102 Pa, lower than most basaltic lavas. Viscosity estimates range from 103 to 105 Pa s, although these are probably upper limits. Actual values may have been as low as 100 Pa s. Viscosity is sensitive to flow velocity, which is poorly known on Io. The best constraint on flow velocity comes from observations of the 1997 Pillan eruption, which bracket the eruptive phase to 132 day maximum, and more probably less than 50 days. Low slopes, long run-out distances and our estimated rheologic properties are consistent with (but not proof of) a low silica, low viscosity, high temperature composition for ionian lavas, supporting arguments for low-silica lava compositions such as basalt or komatiite. We cannot eliminate sulfur on rheologic grounds, however.  相似文献   

20.
We present a preliminary photogeologic map of the Scandia region of Mars with the objective of reconstructing its resurfacing history. The Scandia region includes the lower section of the regional lowland slope of Vastitas Borealis extending about 500–1800 km away from Alba Mons into the Scandia sub-basin below ?4800 m elevation. Twenty mapped geologic units express the diverse stratigraphy of the region. We particularly focus on the materials making up the Vastitas Borealis plains and its Scandia sub-region, where erosional processes have obscured stratigraphic relations and made the reconstruction of the resurfacing history particularly challenging. Geologic mapping implicates the deposition, erosion, and deformation/degradation of geologic units predominantly during Late Hesperian and Early Amazonian time (～3.6–3.3 Ga). During this time, Alba Mons was active, outflow channels were debouching sediments into the northern plains, and basal ice layers of the north polar plateau were accumulating. We identify zones of regional tectonic contraction and extension as well as gradation and mantling. Depressions and scarps within these zones indicate collapse and gradation of Scandia outcrops and surfaces at scales of meters to hundreds of meters. We find that Scandia Tholi display concentric ridges, rugged peaks, irregular depressions, and moats that suggest uplift and tilting of layered plains material by diapirs and extrusion, erosion, and deflation of viscous, sedimentary slurries as previously suggested. These appear to be long-lived features that both pre-date and post-date impact craters. Mesa-forming features may have similar origins and occur along the southern margin of the Scandia region, including near the Phoenix Mars Lander site. Distinctive lobate materials associated with local impact craters suggest impact-induced mobilization of surface materials. We suggest that the formation of the Scandia region features potentially resulted from crustal heating related to Alba Mons volcanism, which acted upon a sequence of lavas, outflow channel sediments, and polar ice deposits centered within the Scandia region. These volatile-enriched sediments may have been in a state of partial volatile melt, resulting in the mobilization of deeply buried ancient materials and their ascent and emergence as sediment and mud breccia diapirs to form tholi features. Similar subsurface instabilities proximal to Alba Mons may have led to surface disruption, as suggested by local and regional scarps, mesas, moats, and knob fields.  相似文献   

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