首页 | 本学科首页   官方微博 | 高级检索  
相似文献
 共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 62 毫秒
1.
Groundwater is inherently susceptible to contamination from anthropogenic activities and remediation is very difficult and expensive. Prevention of contamination is hence critical in effective groundwater management. In this paper an attempt has been made to assess aquifer vulnerability at the Russeifa solid waste landfill. This disposal site is placed at the most important aquifer in Jordan, which is known as Amman-Wadi Sir (B2/A7). The daily-generated leachate within the landfill is about 160 m3/day and there is no system for collecting and treating this leachate. Therefore, the leachate infiltrates to groundwater and degrades the quality of the groundwater. The area is strongly vulnerable to pollution due to the presence of intensive agricultural activity, the solid waste disposal site and industries. Increasing groundwater demand makes the protection of the aquifer from pollution crucial. Physical and hydrogeological characteristics make the aquifer susceptible to pollution. The vulnerability of groundwater to contamination in the study area was quantified using the DRASTIC model. The DRASTIC model uses the following seven parameters: depth to water, recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact on vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity. The water level data were measured in the observation wells within the disposal site. The recharge is derived based on precipitation, land use and soil characteristics. The aquifer media was obtained from a geological map of the area. The topography is obtained from the Natural Resources Authority of Jordan, 1:50,000 scale topographic map. The impact on the vadose zone is defined by the soil permeability and depth to water. The hydraulic conductivity was obtained from the field pumping tests. The calculated DRASTIC index number indicates a moderate pollution potential for the study area.  相似文献   

2.
A shallow unconfined low-lying coastal aquifer in southern Finland surrounded by the Baltic Sea is vulnerable to changes in groundwater recharge, sea-level rise and human activities. Assessment of the intrinsic vulnerability of groundwater under climate scenarios was performed for the aquifer area by utilising the results of a published study on the impacts of climate change on groundwater recharge and sea-level rise on groundwater–seawater interaction. Three intrinsic vulnerability mapping methods, the aquifer vulnerability index (AVI), a modified SINTACS and GALDIT, were applied and compared. According to the results, the degree of groundwater vulnerability is greatly impacted by seasonal variations in groundwater recharge during the year, and also varies depending on the climate-change variability in the long term. The groundwater is potentially highly vulnerable to contamination from sources on the ground surface during high groundwater recharge rates after snowmelt, while a high vulnerability to seawater intrusion could exist when there is a low groundwater recharge rate in dry season. The AVI results suggest that a change in the sea level will have an insignificant impact on groundwater vulnerability compared with the results from the modified SINTACS and GALDIT. The modified SINTACS method could be used as a guideline for the groundwater vulnerability assessment of glacial and deglacial deposits in inland aquifers, and in combination with GALDIT, it could provide a useful tool for assessing groundwater vulnerability to both contamination from sources on the ground surface and to seawater intrusion for shallow unconfined low-lying coastal aquifers under future climate-change conditions.  相似文献   

3.
The existing different human activities and planned land uses put the groundwater resources in Jordan at considerable risk. There are evidences suggesting that the quality of groundwater supplies in north Jordan is under threat from a wide variety of point and non-point sources including agricultural, domestic, and industrial. Vulnerability maps are designed to show areas of greatest potential for groundwater contamination on the basis of hydrogeological conditions and human impacts. DRASTIC method incorporates the major geological and hydrogeological factors that affect and control groundwater movement: depth to groundwater (D), net recharge (R), lithology of the aquifer (A), soil texture (S), topography (T), lithology of vadose zone (I), and hydraulic conductivity (C). The main goal of this study is to produce vulnerability maps of groundwater resources in the Yarmouk River basin by applying the DRASTIC method to determine areas where groundwater protection or monitoring is critical. ArcGIS 9.2 was used to create the groundwater vulnerability maps by overlaying the available hydrogeological data. The resulting vulnerability maps were then integrated with lineament and land use maps as additional parameters in the DRASTIC model to assess more accurately the potential risk of groundwater to pollution. The general DRASTIC index indicates that the potential for polluting groundwater is low in the whole basin, whereas the resulting pesticide DRASTIC vulnerability map indicates that about 31% of the basin is classified as having moderate vulnerability, which may be attributed to agricultural activities in the area. Although high nitrate concentrations were found in areas of moderate vulnerability, DRASTIC method did not depict accurately the nitrate distribution in the area.  相似文献   

4.
A point count index method using a well drillers log and field measurements has been developed following the DRASTIC and SINTACS procedures to map and evaluate the vulnerability of a coastal plain aquifer to surface and near surface contamination. The input parameters with the acronym CALOD include clay layer thickness (C), aquifer media character (A), lateritic layer thickness (L), overlying layer character (O) and the depth to groundwater level (D). The CALOD vulnerability potential index (CALOD index) is computed as the sum of the products of weights and ratings assigned to each of the input parameters. The CALOD index, varying between 15 and 75, is divided into four classes: high (>60), high-medium, (40–60), low-medium (20–40) and low (<20). The CALOD index is then used to produce a vulnerability potential map for the area. From the map, areas of high, high-medium and medium-low are consistent with the upper gravelly aquiferous zone while areas of medium-low and low are restricted to the deeper lower sandy aquiferous layer. The most important parameters affecting groundwater vulnerability to pollution in coastal areas include saturated thickness of the aquifer, depth to groundwater level, lateritic layer thickness and the aquifer media character. The concentration of some chemical pollution indicators (electrical conductivity, K, NO3, Cl and metal load) are relatively higher for the highly vulnerable shallower upper gravelly unit in comparison to the less vulnerable deeper sandy unit. This method is very suitable for coastal plain sand aquifers especially, where data is scare.  相似文献   

5.
The SINTACS approach was used to evaluate intrinsic groundwater vulnerability within Nong Rua District, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. The approach is based on seven environmental variables prepared in the form of GIS data layers. These variables are depth to water level, infiltration capacity, unsaturated zone, soil type, aquifer media, hydraulic conductivity, and slope. The resulting vulnerability map depicts the spatial extent of six classes of vulnerability ranging from very low to extremely high. High and moderate level classes of vulnerability dominated most of the study area. The northwestern, southwestern and central parts of the study area fell under the very high and extremely high vulnerability levels according to this approach. These regions displayed characteristics that indicated their vulnerability such as a high infiltration rate, coarse-texture soil, and shallow depth to groundwater. The statistical correlation coefficient between the nitrate concentration in 87 wells and the SINTACS vulnerability levels was 0.51. Both map removal and single variable sensitivity analyses were performed to observe the influence of specific variables on the model result. The result of this study is useful for guiding strategic planning of groundwater quality management.  相似文献   

6.
The area of Thal Doab is located in the Indus Basin and is underlain by a thick alluvial aquifer called the Thal Doab aquifer (TDA). The TDA is undergone intense hydrological stress owing to rapid population growth and excessive groundwater use for livestock and irrigated agricultural land uses. The potential impact of these land uses on groundwater quality was assessed using a DRASTIC model in a Geographic Information System environment. Seven DRASTIC thematic maps were developed at fixed scale and then combined into a groundwater vulnerability map. The resultant vulnerability index values were grouped into four zones as low, moderate, high and very high. The study has established that 76% of the land area that is underlain by the TDA has a high to very high vulnerability to groundwater contamination mainly because of a thin soil profile, a shallow water table and the presence of soils and sediments with high hydraulic conductivity values. In addition, only 2 and 22% of the total area lie in low and moderate vulnerability zones, respectively. The outcomes of this study can be used to improve the sustainability of the groundwater resource through proper land-use management.  相似文献   

7.
Three vulnerability index models were applied to assess the pollution potential of Nabeul-Hammamet shallow aquifer, Tunisia: DRASTIC, Pesticide DRASTIC and the Susceptibility Index (SI). An output map layer of each one was obtained using a geographic information system (GIS). The SI layer was overlain with DRASTIC and Pesticide DRASTIC and the percentage areas of agreement and divergence in vulnerability categories were extracted. DRASTIC results suggest the aquifer has mostly low vulnerability. Pesticide DRASTIC and SI identify three vulnerability categories (low, moderate, high) in the aquifer. Published data on current chemical groundwater composition indicate that parts of the aquifer are highly contaminated, revealing that DRASTIC underestimates the risk of pollution; Pesticide DRASTIC and SI reflect this risk better. Agreement in vulnerability categories between the two last models is found for 64 % of the aquifer area. To help manage land-use allocation and prevent Nabeul-Hammamet-aquifer contamination, DRASTIC is not recommended. Pesticide DRASTIC and SI are recommended but for slightly different applications. SI helps in the monitoring of current vulnerable areas and, thus, in contamination prevention. Pesticide DRASTIC could better intervene as a criterion in a multi-criteria analysis to select the best sites for specific on-the-ground practice or future land use.  相似文献   

8.
Three different parametric methods for the evaluation of intrinsic vulnerability to pollution have been applied in a hydrothermal carbonate aquifer located in central-northern Italy and the results obtained were compared with each other. The study area, large, approximately 152 km2, lies in an area of the northern Apennines. The investigated aquifer feeds the hot thermal springs of Saturnia. The vulnerability assessment methods used are: SINTACS, GODS and COP. The vulnerability maps obtained were first individually examined, and then they were compared with each other by means of spatial analysis. These maps show similar results for the estimation of the vulnerability just in some areas. SINTACS yields areas potentially vulnerable to pollution along the Albegna River and its major tributaries in the northern part of the study area. The GODS index map reflects the great importance that this method gives to the lithological characteristics of the unsaturated zone in the subdivision of areas with different vulnerability. GODS and COP methods agree in classifying low vulnerability in the most part of central-southern study area, where the aquifer is confined by the Pliocene clay deposits. Based on the conceptual model of groundwater flow developed for the aquifer under investigation, COP seems the most appropriate method among those applied in this work, in particular with regard to the assessment of the vulnerability of the recharge area of thermal groundwater. Located in the northern part of the study area, where karst carbonate formations of the Tuscan Nappe outcrop, this recharge area is classified by the COP method as highly vulnerable to pollution.  相似文献   

9.
Groundwater resources are vulnerable to contamination especially in shallow aquifers. The aquifer hydrogeological parameters and the Land Uses category combinations lead to subdivide areas according to their contamination likelihood. In arid and semi-arid regions, shallow aquifers are more exposed to groundwater contamination due to high population densities (extensive uses) and agricultural activities (nitrate contamination). Moreover, these regions are characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation. Furthermore, the spread of farmland, industrial and domestic sectors, is the principal contaminant producer which threats the groundwater quality. To protect these limited resources, the groundwater vulnerability assessment was developed in Maritime Djeffara shallow aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia). The study area is essentially occupied by agricultural areas (intensive use of chemical fertilizers) in addition to the discharge of industrial zones. The main objective of this study is to assess the aquifer vulnerability using the Susceptibility Index (SI) method as a specific vulnerability model. The results show that the study area is classified into five classes of vulnerability: very low, low, medium, high, and very high (1.54, 20, 41.54, 35.9, and 1.02%, respectively) with an uneven spatial distribution. The risk results exhibit three degrees: low, moderate, and high. The validation of the vulnerability model was performed by using salinity values and nitrate concentrations with a correlation coefficient of about 57 and 55%, respectively. This study could serve as a scientific basis for sustainable land use planning and groundwater management in the study area.  相似文献   

10.
Aquifer systems present intrinsic properties such as vulnerability, which is identified as the potential risk of groundwater pollution by contaminants generated by human activity. When there are surface sources of pollution, usually there is a direct relationship between high vulnerability and decreased water quality. Nevertheless, this relationship is not observed in all aquifers and so the causative circumstances of inconsistencies between aquifer vulnerability and water quality have been investigated. This work addresses the vulnerability assessment of the Chapala Marsh area, Mexico, using SINTACS analysis. The Chapala Marsh aquifer is characterized by a granular structure and a fractured recharge zone; there are natural and anthropogenic sources of pollution. The results show discrepancies between the vulnerability indices and groundwater quality, as indicated by the existence of vulnerable areas with good water quality and vice versa. This is because the SINTACS method works well when contaminants have only vertical movement. For scenarios with lateral movement of contaminants, the method of geographic weighted regression (GWR) is used to model the influence of potential sources of contaminants on the water quality.  相似文献   

11.
The aquifer system in the Metropolitan Zone of the Mexican Basin is comprised by a higher, middle, and a lower aquifer, separated by less permeable elements. This study integrated a geographical database from which aquifer vulnerability values were obtained using the SINTACS method. The results show the lowest vulnerability values in the lacustrine zone of the basin, where most of the urban area is settled. The medium vulnerability indices are at the edges of the basin and are associated with tuffs, pyroclasts and alluvial deposits. The highest vulnerability values are in the ranges bordering the basin. High water quality values are toward the limits of the basin and in the recharge zones while lower quality water is in the Tlahuac and Iztapalapa zones. The results of this study enable a cause–effect relationship to be established between potential sources of contamination and groundwater quality indices only for Tlahuac and Iztapalapa, a notable finding since most of the urban area is settled over low and very low vulnerability zones.  相似文献   

12.
The groundwater vulnerability indices are valuable tools for the development of agrochemicals management strategies based on environmental/agricultural policies. The groundwater vulnerability methods of LOS, SINTACS, DRASTIC, Pesticide DRASTIC, GOD and AVI were applied for the agricultural fields of Sarigkiol basin (Northern Greece). The results of the aforementioned methods were examined and discussed in order to show how the dissimilarities in the vulnerability assessment approaches may become an advantage. The results of the methods were used to propose a combined conceptual approach which adds another two dimensions (depth and time) in the current two-dimensional vulnerability mapping (longitude, latitude) procedures. The LOS method provided information about the intrinsic vulnerability of the topsoil (30 cm) to water (+conservative pollutants) and nitrogen losses, and the AVI method described the vulnerability of the unsaturated zone to allow pollutants to reach the aquifer while the aquifer vulnerability was analysed using SINTACS, DRASTIC, Pesticide DRASTIC and GOD. In this study, the results of the SINTACS method were found more accurate to describe the local aquifer conditions. The final conceptual approach provided a stratified vulnerability (dimension of depth) of the overall hydrogeologic system using LOS for the topsoil, AVI for unsaturated zone and SINTACS for the aquifer. The dimension of time was introduced by the LOS and AVI methods, which provide quantitative results in time. The use of LOS method also highlighted the basic limitation of the other methods to describe the potential contribution to pollution of areas (especially upland areas) which are out of the aquifer boundaries.  相似文献   

13.
Groundwater aquifer vulnerability has been assessed by incorporating the major geological and hydrogeological factors that affect and control the groundwater contamination using GIS-based DRASTIC model along with solute transport modeling. This work demonstrates the potential of GIS to derive a vulnerability map by overlying various spatially referenced digital data layers (i.e., depth to water, net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, the impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity) that portrays cumulative aquifer sensitivity ratings in Kishangarh, Rajasthan. It provides a relative indication of groundwater aquifer vulnerability to contamination. The soil moisture flow and solute transport regimes of the vadose zone associated with specific hydrogeological conditions play a crucial role in pollution risk assessment of the underlying groundwater resources. An effort has been made to map the vulnerability of shallow groundwater to surface pollutants of thestudy area, using soil moisture flow and contaminant transport modeling. The classical advection-dispersion equation coupled with Richard’s equation is numerically simulated at different point locations for assessing the intrinsic vulnerability of the valley. The role of soil type, slope, and the land-use cover is considered for estimating the transient flux at the top boundary from daily precipitation and evapotranspiration data of the study area. The time required by the solute peak to travel from the surface to the groundwater table at the bottom of the soil profile is considered as an indicator of avulnerability index. Results show a high vulnerability in the southern region, whereas low vulnerability is observed in the northeast and northern parts. The results have recognized four aquifer vulnerability zones based on DRASTIC vulnerability index (DVI), which ranged from 45 to 178. It has been deduced that approximately 18, 25, 34, and 23% of the area lies in negligible, low, medium and high vulnerability zones, respectively. The study may assist in decision making related to theplanning of industrial locations and the sustainable water resources development of the selected semi-arid area.  相似文献   

14.
Jordan with its limited water resources is currently classified as one of the four water-poor countries worldwide. This study was initiated to explore groundwater potential areas in Tulul al Ashaqif area, Jordan, by integrating remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and multicriteria evaluation techniques. Eight thematic layers were built in a GIS and assigned using multicriteria evaluation techniques suitable weights and ratings regarding their relative contribution in groundwater occurrence. These layers include lithology, geomorphology, lineaments density, drainage density, soil texture, rainfall, elevation, and slope. The final groundwater potentiality map generated by GIS consists of five groundwater potentiality classes: very high, high, moderate, low, and very low. The map showed that the study area is generally of moderate groundwater potentiality (76.35 %). The very high and high potential classes occupy 2.2 and 12.75 % of study area, respectively. The validity of results of this GIS-based model was carried out by superimposing existing hand dug wells on the final map. The single parameter sensitivity test was conducted to assess the influence of the assigned weights on the groundwater potential model, and new effective weights were derived. The resulted groundwater potentiality map showed that the area occupied by each of the groundwater potentiality classes has changed. However, the study area remains generally of moderate groundwater potentiality (70.93 % of the study area). The area occupied by the very high and high potential classes comprises 4.53 and 18.56 % of the study area, respectively.  相似文献   

15.
In this work, a 3D groundwater flow model integrating all important geological features of the hydrogeological system is developed to investigate hydrological processes in the Wadi Kafrein area of Jordan. A large amount of available geological and hydrological data is integrated to construct a 3D groundwater flow model for the Wadi Kafrein area. Using the newly developed mapping approach, the translation of the highly detailed geological formations to an unstructured finite element grids, can be accomplished with high precision. The existing data set for model calibration is scarce, which is a typical situation for many hydrogeological case studies. At first, the steady state calibration of the groundwater model is carried out based on the observation wells. Then, the time and space-dependent recharge from precipitation are applied at the top surface of the finite element model. The transient simulation is conducted during the period of 1996–2008 considering the abstraction rates of the production wells and discharge of the springs. The calculated water levels are close to the observed values. The difference is partly caused by return flows from irrigation and the groundwater inflow from the adjacent aquifers which are not taken into consideration so far. Since the Wadi Kafrein area is an important agricultural area in the semiarid region of the Lower Jordan Valley, the model developed in this study can be regarded as a useful tool for analyzing the hydrological processes and improving groundwater management practices elsewhere affected by similar geological and hydrogeological conditions.  相似文献   

16.
A detailed hydrogeological and hydrochemical study was carried out in Yamuna-Krishni sub-basin which is a part of the vast central Ganga plain. Groundwater is the major source of water supply for agricultural, domestic and industrial uses. The excess use of groundwater has resulted in depletion of water levels. The groundwater quality, too, has deteriorated in areas dominated by industrial activity. This has led to the preparation of a groundwater vulnerability map in relation to contamination. Groundwater vulnerability maps are valuable derivative maps that show, quantitatively or qualitatively, certain characteristics of the sub-surface environment that determine vulnerability of groundwater to contamination. The modified DRASTIC method was used to prepare vulnerability map. The parameters like depth to water, net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, impact of vadose zone, hydraulic conductivity and land use pattern, owing to its bearing on groundwater regime, were considered to prepare vulnerability map. The vulnerability index is computed as the sum of the products of weight and rating assigned to each of the input considered as above. The vulnerability index ranges from 140 to 180, and is classified into four classes i.e. 140–150, 150–160, 160–170 and 170–180 corresponding to low, medium, high and very high vulnerability zones respectively. Using this index, a groundwater vulnerability potential map was generated which shows that 7%, 40% and 53% of the study area falls in low, medium and high to very high vulnerability zones respectively. The map, thus generated, can be used as a tool for protection and management of aquifers from contamination.  相似文献   

17.
The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (NSSA) is the main groundwater resource of the El-Bahariya Oasis, which is located in the middle of the Western Desert of Egypt. This aquifer is composed mainly of continental clastic sediments of sandstone with shale and clay intercalations of saturated thickness ranging between 100 and 1500 m. Vulnerability assessment to delineate areas that are more susceptible to contamination from anthropogenic sources has become an important element for sustainable resources management and land use planning. Accordingly, this research aims to estimate the vulnerability of NSSA by applying the DRASTIC model as well as utilising sensitivity analyses to evaluate the relative importance of the model parameters for aquifer vulnerability in the study area. The main objective is to demonstrate the combined use of the DRASTIC and the GIS techniques as an effective method for groundwater pollution risk assessment, and mapping the areas that are prone to deterioration of groundwater quality and quantity. Based on DRASTIC index (DI) values, a groundwater vulnerability map was produced using the GIS. The aquifer analysis in the study area highlighted the following key points: the northeastern and western parts of the NSSA were dominated by ‘High’ vulnerability classes while the northwestern and southeastern parts were characterised by ‘Medium’ vulnerability classes. The elevated central part of the study area displayed ‘Low’ aquifer vulnerability. The vulnerability map shows a relatively greater risk imposed on the northeastern part of the NSSA due to the larger pollution potential of intensive vegetable cultivation. Depth-to-water, topography and hydraulic conductivity parameters were found to be more effective in assessing aquifer vulnerability.  相似文献   

18.
The use of indices, describing aquifer vulnerability and the risk of groundwater pollution, is a basic tool for the implementation of a sound water management plan, especially in densely populated and intensely cultivated areas. In this study, the groundwater contamination risk of the Caserta Plain (Southern Italy) was assessed through the integration of hazards defined on the basis of the different land uses, of the intrinsic vulnerability calculated by applying the SINTACS model and of the groundwater value evaluated by considering water wells density. In order to evaluate the evolution of the risk of groundwater pollution, the proposed methods were applied in the study area for both 2001 and 2009. The resulting specific vulnerability (SINTACS-L) and the risk (GRA) maps, created in a GIS environment, were validated by the comparison with the nitrate concentration distribution. The application of the proposed approach to the study area highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of each method and, at the same time, showed that their combination can provide an overall view of the threats posed to groundwater resources by the human activities affecting the territory. Considering both the benefits and the issues of the proposed approach, overall, the groundwater risk map is thought to be a robust tool to support water managers in defining future plans for water resources exploitation and land use.  相似文献   

19.
Groundwater, the most vital water resource being used for irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes is nowadays under severe threat of contamination. Groundwater contamination risk assessment is an effective tool for groundwater management. In the study, a DRASTIC model which is based on the seven hydrogeological parameters viz: depth of water, net-recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity was used to evaluate the groundwater pollution potentiality of upper Betwa watershed. ArcGIS was used to create the ground water vulnerability map by overlaying the seven layers. Based on groundwater vulnerability map, the watershed has been divided in three vulnerable zones viz; low vulnerability zone with 42.83 km2 of area, moderate with 369.21 km2 area and high having 270.96 km2 of area. Furthermore, the DRASTIC model has been validated by nitrate concentration over the area. Results of validation have shown that in low vulnerable zone, no nitrate contamination has been recorded. While in the moderate zone nitrate has been found in the range of 1.6-10ppm. However, in high vulnerable zone 11-40ppm of nitrate concentration in groundwater has been recorded, which proves that the DRASTIC model is applicable for the prediction of groundwater vulnerability in the watershed and in similar areas too.  相似文献   

20.
The present work attempts to interpret the groundwater vulnerability of the Melaka State in peninsular Malaysia. The state of groundwater pollution in Melaka is a critical issue particularly in respect of the increasing population, and tourism industry as well as the agricultural, industrial and commercial development. Focusing on this issue, the study illustrates the groundwater vulnerability map for the Melaka State using the DRASTIC model together with remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS). The data which correspond to the seven parameters of the model were collected and converted into thematic maps by GIS. Seven thematic maps defining the depth to water level, net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity were generated to develop the DRASTIC map. In addition, this map was integrated with a land use map for generating the risk map to assess the effect of land use activities on the groundwater vulnerability. Three types of vulnerability zones were assigned for both DRASTIC map and risk map, namely, high, moderate and low. The DRASTIC map illustrates that an area of 11.02 % is low vulnerability, 61.53 % moderate vulnerability and 23.45 % high vulnerability, whereas the risk map indicates that 14.40 % of the area is low vulnerability, 47.34 % moderate vulnerability and 38.26 % high vulnerability in the study area. The most vulnerability area exists around Melaka, Jasin and Alor Gajah cities of the Melaka State.  相似文献   

设为首页 | 免责声明 | 关于勤云 | 加入收藏

Copyright©北京勤云科技发展有限公司  京ICP备09084417号