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1.
Terrestrial analogs to the Moon and Mars have been used to advance knowledge in planetary science for over a half-century. They are useful in studies of comparative geology of the terrestrial planets and rocky moons, in astronaut training and testing of exploration technologies, and in developing hypotheses and exploration strategies in astrobiology. In fact, the use of terrestrial analogs can be traced back to the origins of comparative geology and astrobiology, and to the early phases of the Apollo astronaut program. Terrestrial analog studies feature prominently throughout the history of both NASA and the USGS’ Astrogeology Research Program. In light of current international plans for a return missions to the Moon, and eventually to send sample return and manned missions to Mars, as well as the recent creation of various analog research and development programs, this historical perspective is timely.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract— A study in late 2006 was sponsored by the Advanced Projects Office within NASA's Constellation Program to examine the feasibility of sending the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to a near‐Earth object (NEO). The ideal mission profile would involve two or three astronauts on a 90 to 180 day flight, which would include a 7 to 14 day stay for proximity operations at the target NEO. This mission would be the first human expedition to an interplanetary body beyond the Earth‐Moon system and would prove useful for testing technologies required for human missions to Mars and other solar system destinations. Piloted missions to NEOs using the CEV would undoubtedly provide a great deal of technical and engineering data on spacecraft operations for future human space exploration while conducting in‐depth scientific investigations of these primitive objects. The main scientific advantage of sending piloted missions to NEOs would be the flexibility of the crew to perform tasks and to adapt to situations in real time. A crewed vehicle would be able to test several different sample collection techniques and target specific areas of interest via extra‐vehicular activities (EVAs) more efficiently than robotic spacecraft. Such capabilities greatly enhance the scientific return from these missions to NEOs, destinations vital to understanding the evolution and thermal histories of primitive bodies during the formation of the early solar system. Data collected from these missions would help constrain the suite of materials possibly delivered to the early Earth, and would identify potential source regions from which NEOs originate. In addition, the resulting scientific investigations would refine designs for future extraterrestrial resource extraction and utilization, and assist in the development of hazard mitigation techniques for planetary defense.  相似文献   

3.
One of the most exciting recent developments in the field of lunar science has been the unambiguous detection of water (either as OH or H2O) or water ice on the Moon through instruments flown on a number of orbiting spacecraft missions. At the same time, continued laboratory-based investigations of returned lunar samples by Apollo missions using high-precision, low-detection, analytical instruments have for the first time, provided the absolute abundance of water (present mostly as structurally bound OH− in mineral phases) in lunar samples. These new results suggest that the Moon is not an anhydrous body, questioning conventional wisdom, and indicating the possibility of a wet lunar interior and the presence of distinct reservoirs of water on the lunar surface. However, not all recent results point to a wet Moon and it appears that the distribution of water on the Moon may be highly heterogeneous. Additionally, a number of sources are likely to have contributed to the water inventory of the Moon ranging from primordial water to meteorite-derived water ice through to the water formed during the reaction of solar-wind hydrogen with the lunar soil. Water on the Moon has implications for future astrobiological investigations as well as for generating resources in situ during future exploration of the Moon and other airless bodies in the Solar System.  相似文献   

4.
I will argue that an ambitious programme of human space exploration, involving a return to the Moon, and eventually human missions to Mars, will add greatly to human knowledge. Gathering such knowledge is the primary aim of science, but science’s compartmentalisation into isolated academic disciplines tends to obscure the overall strength of the scientific case. Any consideration of the scientific arguments for human space exploration must therefore take a holistic view, and integrate the potential benefits over the entire spectrum of human knowledge. Moreover, science is only one thread in a much larger overall case for human space exploration. Other threads include economic, industrial, educational, geopolitical and cultural benefits. Any responsibly formulated public space policy must weigh all of these factors before deciding whether or not an investment in human space activities is scientifically and socially desirable.  相似文献   

5.
To approach basic scientific questions on the origin and evolution of planetary bodies such as planets, their satellites and asteroids, one needs data on their chemical composition. The measurements of gamma-rays, X-rays and neutrons emitted from their surface materials provide information on abundances of major elements and naturally radioactive gamma-ray emitters. Neutron spectroscopy can provide sensitive maps of hydrogen-and carbon-containing compounds, even if buried, and can uniquely identify layers of carbon-dioxide frost. Nuclear spectroscopy, as a means of compositional analysis, has been applied via orbital and lander spacecraft to extrater-restrial planetary bodies:the Moon, Venus, Mars, Mercury and asteroids. The knowledge of their chemical abundances, especially concerning the Moon and Mars, has greatly increased in recent years. This paper describes the principle of nuclear spectroscopy, nuclear planetary instruments carried on planetary missions so far, and the nature of observational results and findings of the Moon and Mars, recently obtained by nuclear spectroscopy.  相似文献   

6.
The study of the elements and molecules of astrobiological interest on the Moon can be made with the Gas Analysis Package (GAP) and associated instruments developed for the Beagle 2 Mars Express Payload. The permanently shadowed polar regions of the Moon may offer a unique location for the “cold-trapping” of the light elements (i.e. H, C, N, O, etc.) and their simple compounds. Studies of the returned lunar samples have shown that lunar materials have undergone irradiation with the solar wind and adsorb volatiles from possible cometary and micrometeoroid impacts. The Beagle 2’s analytical instrument package including the sample processing facility and the GAP mass spectrometer can provide vital isotopic information that can distinguish whether the lunar volatiles are indigenous to the moon, solar wind derived, cometary in origin or from meteoroids impacting on the Moon. As future Lunar Landers are being considered, the suite of instruments developed for the Mars Beagle 2 lander can be consider as the baseline for any lunar volatile or resource instrument package.  相似文献   

7.
Robotic platforms are essential for future human planetary and lunar exploration as they can operate in more extreme environments with a greater endurance than human explorers. In this era of space exploration, a terrestrial analog that can be used for development of the coordination between manned and robotic vehicles will optimize the scientific return of future missions while concurrently minimizing the downtime of both human explorers and robotic platforms. This work presents the use of underwater exploratory robots - autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), remotely operated vehicles (ROV), and manned submersibles - as analogues for mixed human-robot exploration of space. Subaqueous settings present diverse challenges for navigation, operation and recovery that require the development of an exploration model of a similar complexity as required for space exploration. To capitalize on the strengths of both robotic and human explorers this work presents lessons learnt with respect to the fields of human-robotic interface (HRI) and operator training. These are then used in the development of mission evaluation tools: (1) a task efficiency index (TEI), (2) performance metrics, and (3) exploration metrics. Although these independent evaluations were useful for specific missions, further refinement will be required to fully evaluate the strengths and capabilities of multiple platforms in a human-robotic exploration campaign in order to take advantage of unforeseen science opportunities in remote settings.  相似文献   

8.
This review is intended to summarize the current observations of reduced carbon in Martian meteorites, differentiating between terrestrial contamination and carbon that is indigenous to Mars. Indeed, the identification of Martian organic matter is among the highest priority targets for robotic spacecraft missions in the next decade, including the Mars Science Laboratory and Mars 2020. Organic carbon compounds are essential building blocks of terrestrial life, so the occurrence and origin (biotic or abiotic) of organic compounds on Mars is of great significance; however, not all forms of reduced carbon are conducive to biological systems. This paper discusses the significance of reduced organic carbon (including methane) in Martian geological and astrobiological systems. Specifically, it summarizes current thinking on the nature, sources, and sinks of Martian organic carbon, a key component to Martian habitability. Based on this compilation, reduced organic carbon on Mars, including detections of methane in the Martian atmosphere, is best described through a combination of abiotic organic synthesis on Mars and infall of extraterrestrial carbonaceous material. Although conclusive signs of Martian life have yet to be revealed, we have developed a strategy for life detection on Mars that can be utilized in future life‐detection studies.  相似文献   

9.
近年来月球探测已经进入了一个全新的时代。特别是 1 990年以来 ,多个月球探测计划已经被成功实现 ,而且另外还有多个探测计划也在准备当中 ,并将在未来的几年内发射升空。在这种背景之下 ,中国的航天机构和有关的科学家也开始积极酝酿和开发自己的月球探测计划。这些月球探测计划将利用卫星上搭载的各种仪器探测和测量月球的地质和地理特性、化学成分和矿物组成、月球物理学特征以及包含地球大气在内的地月空间环境和行星际空间环境 ;进一步研究月球的起源和演化 ,探明月面环境 ,研究太阳等离子体物理 ,提供月面天文台和月面长期科研基地的候选地址 ,调查月球上的可利用资源 ,为将来开发月球提供充实的背景资料。参与新一轮的月球探测同样也为中国天文学研究带来了新的机会。  相似文献   

10.
Abstract— Research on extraterrestrial materials plays a critical role in formulating the science rationale and design for spacecraft missions, and, conversely, spaceflight holds great promise for solving perplexing problems in meteoritics. The connections between meteoritics and sample-return missions are obvious: Meteorite research can define sampling strategies, the capabilities of sampling devices, acceptable levels of chemical contamination and physical alteration of samples, and the conditions under which samples are stored prior to and during recovery. For their part, sample-return missions can provide geologic context for meteorites, increased sampling diversity (including materials not sampled as meteorites, such as unconsolidated regolith, ices, and atmosphere), calibration for crater-counting chronology, and ground truth for remote sensing measurements of meteorite parent bodies. Meteoritics also relates to spacecraft flyby, rendezvous, and lander missions that do not necessarily return samples. Specific illustrations of this mutual relationship, based on a selection of recent or planned spacecraft missions include: Identifying source asteroid classes for ordinary and carbonaceous chondrites and reconstructing their thermal and collisional histories (Galileo, NEAR, Clementine II, and Muses-C); determining the extent to which cometary dust and interstellar grains are found as interplanetary dust particles and assessing volatile abundances, isotopic compositions, and molecular species in cometary nuclei (Stardust and Rosetta); understanding the compositions of ancient Martian crust and the mantle sources for SNC meteorites, as well as inventorying the planet's volatile reservoirs and interactions (Mars Pathfinder, Mars Global Surveyor, and Mars Volatiles and Climate Surveyor); assessing whether lunar meteorites provide a more representative chemical sampling of the highlands crust and of mare volcanism than do Apollo samples (Galileo, Clementine, and Lunar Prospector). Spaceflight is the first priority of the space agencies that fund most research on extraterrestrial materials, and the continued level of support for such research may be linked, in part, to its use in exploration by spacecraft.  相似文献   

11.
Moll DM  Vestal JR 《Icarus》1992,98(2):233-239
Manned exploration of Mars may result in the contamination of that planet with terrestrial microbes, a situation requiring assessment of the survival potential of possible contaminating organisms. In this study, the survival of Bacillius subtilis, Azotobacter chroococcum, and the enteric bacteriophage MS2 was examined in clays representing terrestrial (Wyoming type montmorillonite) or Martian (Fe(3+)-montmorillonite) soils exposed to terrestrial and Martian environmental conditions of temperature and atmospheric pressure and composition, but not to UV flux or oxidizing conditions. Survival of bacteria was determined by standard plate counts and biochemical and physiological measurements over 112 days. Extractable lipid phosphate was used to measure microbial biomass, and the rate of 14C-acetate incorporation into microbial lipids was used to determine physiological activity. MS2 survival was assayed by plaque counts. Both bacterial types survived terrestrial or Martian conditions in Wyoming montmorillonite better than Martian conditions in Fe(3+)-montmorillonite. Decreased survival may have been caused by the lower pH of the Fe(3+)-montmorillonite compared to Wyoming montmorillonite. MS2 survived simulated Mars conditions better than the terrestrial environment, likely due to stabilization of the virus caused by the cold and dry conditions of the simulated Martian environment. The survival of MS2 in the simulated Martian environment is the first published indication that viruses may be able to survive in Martian type soils. This work may have implications for planetary protection for future Mars missions.  相似文献   

12.
In the present paper the equations of the translatory motion of the major planets and the Moon and the Poisson equations of the Earth’s rotation in Euler parameters are reduced to the secular system describing the evolution of the planetary and lunar orbits (independent of the Earth’s rotation) and the evolution of the Earth’s rotation (depending on the planetary and lunar evolution). Hence, the theory of the Earth’s rotation is presented by means of the series in powers of the evolutionary variables with quasi-periodic coefficients.  相似文献   

13.
This paper presents a review of research findings on the various forms of water on the Moon. First, this is the water of the Moon’s interior, which has been detected by sensitive mass spectrometric analysis of basaltic glasses delivered by the Apollo 15 and Apollo 17 missions. The previous concepts that lunar magmas are completely dehydrated have been disproved. Second, this is H2O and/or OH in a thin layer (a few upper millimeters) of the lunar regolith, which is likely a result of bombardment of the oxygen contained in the lunar regolith with solar wind protons. This form of water is highly unstable and quite easily escapes from the surface, possibly being one of the sources of the water ice reservoirs at the Moon’s poles. Third, this is water ice associated with other frozen gases in cold traps at the lunar poles. Its possible sources are impacts of comets and meteorites, the release of gas from the Moon’s interior, and solar wind protons. The ice trapped at the lunar polars could be of practical interest for further exploration of the Moon.  相似文献   

14.
In the present paper the equations of the orbital motion of the major planets and the Moon and the equations of the three–axial rigid Earth’s rotation in Euler parameters are reduced to the secular system describing the evolution of the planetary and lunar orbits (independent of the Earth’s rotation) and the evolution of the Earth’s rotation (depending on the planetary and lunar evolution). Hence, the theory of the Earth’s rotation can be presented by means of the series in powers of the evolutionary variables with quasi-periodic coefficients with respect to the planetary–lunar mean longitudes. This form of the Earth’s rotation problem is compatible with the general planetary theory involving the separation of the short–period and long–period variables and avoiding the appearance of the non–physical secular terms.  相似文献   

15.
Terrestrial translation of biomedical advances is insufficient justification for lunar exploration. However, terrestrial translation should be viewed as a critical part of the cycle of mission planning, execution and review, both in terms of the progress of space exploration, but also of sustained life on Earth. Thus, both the mission and its potential to benefit mankind are increased by the adoption of human-based exploration of the lunar surface. Whilst European biomedical sciences have grown in stature, there remains a gap between space biomedical science and terrestrial medical application. As such, an opportunity for the UK to take a sustainable leadership role exists by utilising its biomedical science community, socialised health care system (National Health Service) and defined mechanisms to determine the clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness upon health and wellbeing (i.e. National Institute Clinical Excellence), aiding the difficult process of health care rationing. By focusing upon exploitation of the more scientifically rewarding, potentially long-term and more terrestrially analogous challenge of lunar habitation, the UK would circumnavigate the current impediments to International Space Station utilisation. Early engagement in lunar exploration would promote the UK, and its adoption of a leadership role incorporating a considered approach to the development of space biomedicine with an eye to its terrestrial value. For instance, prolonged lunar habitation could provide an ‘ideal controlled environment’ for investigation of medical interventions, in particular multiple interactions (e.g. between exercise and nutrition), a model of accelerated aging and a number of chronic pathologies, including those related to disuse. Lunar advances could provide a springboard for individualized medicine, insights into occupational and de-centralised medicine (e.g. telemedicine) and act as a stimulus for biomedical innovation and understanding. Leadership in biomedical science activities would retain mission critically (and thus avoid obsolesce) so long as a human is involved (irrespective of specific mission architecture) and could be used to leverage opportunities for UK-based institutions, companies and individuals, most notably current ESA astronaut candidate Major Tim Peake. A combination of ESA engagement and national support for space biomedical sciences via research councils (e.g. Medical Research Council) could facilitate a virtuous circle of investment, advancement and socio-economic return invigorating the NHS, education, and key research initiatives such as ESA Harwell, UK Centre for Medical Research and Innovation, and the newly instigated Academic Health Science Centres. Such a strategy could also boost private space enterprise within the UK including the creation of a space port and could help retain the UK’s position as a European aerospace transportation, services and legislative hub. By focusing upon its biomedical strength within a multi-faceted but co-ordinated strategy of engagement, the UK could reap significant socio-economic benefits for the UK and its citizens, be they on the Moon, or the Earth.  相似文献   

16.
The interpretation of planetary anomalies in the gravity fields of Mars and the Moon in relationship to their inhomogeneous internal structure is considered. The Martian and lunar gravity field models up to order and degree 20, three-layer (crust, mantle, core) model parameters, and planetary parameters have been used as input data. Models of the three-dimensional density distribution have been constructed for Mars and the Moon. The maps of horizontal density inhomogeneities at depths of 50, 100, and 1700 km for Mars and 60, 100, and 1400 km for the Moon are interpreted.  相似文献   

17.
With the prospect of humans returning to Moon by the end of the next decade, considerable attention is being paid to technologies required to transport astronauts to the lunar surface and then to be able to carry out surface science. Recent and ongoing initiatives have focused on scientific questions to be asked. In contrast, few studies have addressed how these scientific priorities will be achieved. In this contribution, we provide some of the lessons learned from the exploration of the Haughton impact structure, an ideal lunar analogue site in the Canadian Arctic. Essentially, by studying how geologists carry out field science, we can provide guidelines for lunar surface operations. Our goal in this contribution is to inform the engineers and managers involved in mission planning, rather than the field geology community. Our results show that the exploration of the Haughton impact structure can be broken down into 3 distinct phases: (1) reconnaissance; (2) systematic regional-scale mapping and sampling; and (3) detailed local-scale mapping and sampling. This break down is similar to the classic scientific method practiced by field geologists of regional exploratory mapping followed by directed mapping at a local scale, except that we distinguish between two different phases of exploratory mapping. Our data show that the number of stops versus the number of samples collected versus the amount of data collected varied depending on the mission phase, as does the total distance covered per EVA. Thus, operational scenarios could take these differences into account, depending on the goals and duration of the mission. Important lessons learned include the need for flexibility in mission planning in order to account for serendipitous discoveries, the highlighting of key “science supersites” that may require return visits, the need for a rugged but simple human-operated rover, laboratory space in the habitat, and adequate room for returned samples, both in the habitat and in the return vehicle. The proposed set of recommendations ideally should be tried and tested in future analogue missions at terrestrial impact sites prior to planetary missions.  相似文献   

18.
The composition of the silicate portion of Martian regolith fines indicates derivation of the fines from mafic to ultramafic igneous rocks, probably rich in pyroxene. Rock types similar in chemical and mineralogical composition include terrestrial Archean basalts and certain achondrite meteorites. If these igneous rocks weathered nearly isochemically, the nontronitic clays proposed earlier as an analog to Martian fines could be formed. Flood basalts of pyroxenitic lavas may be widespread and characteristic of early volcanism on Mars, analogous to maria flood basalts on the Moon and early Precambrian basaltic komatiites on Earth. Compositional differences between lunar, terrestrial, and Martian flood basalts may be related to differences in planetary sizes and mantle compositions of the respective planetary objects.  相似文献   

19.
Reliable measurements of the Moon's global heat flow would serve as an important diagnostic test for models of lunar thermal evolution and would also help to constrain the Moon's bulk abundance of radioactive elements and its differentiation history. The two existing measurements of lunar heat flow are unlikely to be representative of the global heat flow. For these reasons, obtaining additional heat flow measurements has been recognized as a high priority lunar science objective. In making such measurements, it is essential that the design and deployment of the heat flow probe and of the parent spacecraft do not inadvertently modify the near-surface thermal structure of the lunar regolith and thus perturb the measured heat flow. One type of spacecraft-related perturbation is the shadow cast by the spacecraft and by thermal blankets on some instruments. The thermal effects of these shadows propagate by conduction both downward and outward from the spacecraft into the lunar regolith. Shadows cast by the spacecraft superstructure move over the surface with time and only perturb the regolith temperature in the upper 0.8 m. Permanent shadows, such as from thermal blankets covering a seismometer or other instruments, can modify the temperature to greater depth. Finite element simulations using measured values of the thermal diffusivity of lunar regolith show that the limiting factor for temperature perturbations is the need to measure the annual thermal wave for 2 or more years to measure the thermal diffusivity. The error induced by permanent spacecraft thermal shadows can be kept below 8% of the annual wave amplitude at 1 m depth if the heat flow probe is deployed at least 2.5 m away from any permanent spacecraft shadow. Deploying the heat flow probe 2 m from permanent shadows permits measuring the annual thermal wave for only one year and should be considered the science floor for a heat flow experiment on the Moon. One way to meet this separation requirement would be to deploy the heat flow and seismology experiments on opposite sides of the spacecraft. This result should be incorporated in the design of future lunar geophysics spacecraft experiments. Differences in the thermal environments of the Moon and Mars result in less restrictive separation requirements for heat flow experiments on Mars.  相似文献   

20.
The Vision for U.S. Space Exploration offers new opportunities for aggressively increasing the pace of scientific discoveries across the Solar System by empowering an on-site partnership between humans and robotics, enhanced by new technology-enabled capabilities. In particular, the early emphasis of this new Vision will be on development of new scientific activities on the Moon, and later on Mars. Integration of in situ traditional science activities with creative new types of applied scientific research on the Moon and Mars is a key ingredient in the US Vision. The Apollo era record of achievement involving human exploration is particularly informative, as it demonstrates the accelerated pace of scientific discovery and understanding that resulted from human “on site” activities, however briefly, on planetary surfaces. An example of how integrated human and robotic exploration can enable breakthrough science on the planet Mars is provided in order to illustrate these points. The scientific opportunities associated with the Vision for US Space Exploration are many, and with the incorporation of human-based capabilities on the Moon and Mars, an accelerated pace of discovery and understanding will be possible.  相似文献   

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