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1.
Summary ?Evidence is presented for a previously unknown climate cycle of 30,000 yr period. The cycle is deemed to be related to the gyroscopic precession, or wobble of the Earth axis. Since it inhibits glaciation, the 30,000 yr cycle is called the summer cycle while its counterpart, the 22,000 yr “precession” cycle, is the winter cycle. Because of the aspect presented to the Sun, summer is effectively longer than winter. This is used to explain the difference between summer and winter cycle periods and that of the wobble. Some of the problems encountered in interpreting oxygen ratio glaciation data are resolved by knowledge of the existence of the summer cycle and a means is devised for determining the relative volume of glacial ice. An argument is made that essentially eliminates the 100,000 yr-orbit cycle, by itself or in combination with other attitude cycles, as a possible cause of the glacial/interglacial cycles. Received August 17, 2002; accepted September 3, 2002  相似文献   

2.
Summary ?Analysis of available data shows that the duration of the glacial/interglacial cycle is determined by the time for the ocean to go through one major temperature cycle. At the start of an interglacial period, clear skies with consequent release of CO2 from the ocean, warms the atmosphere, which in turn eventually warms the ocean to its maximum. Cloudy skies then cause the climate (land and air temperature) to cool and the CO2 to be reabsorbed to start glaciation preliminaries. The albedo feedback effect of the glacial ice, a relatively warm ocean, which produces enhanced cloud cover, and the increased solubility of CO2 in cold seawater ensure a long period of glaciation. Glacial periods end when pack ice spreads out on the ocean cooling it until reduced cloud cover once again allows the Sun’s heat, unreflected by cloud cover, to melt the ice and release CO2 back into the atmosphere. Received May 22, 2002; accepted June 20, 2002  相似文献   

3.
An AOGCM simulation of the climate response to a volcanic super-eruption   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Volcanic ‘super-eruptions’ have been suggested to have significantly influenced the Earth’s climate, perhaps causing glaciations and impacting on the human population. Climatic changes following a hypothetical ‘super-eruption’ are simulated using a coupled atmosphere ocean general circulation model, incorporating scaled volcanic stratospheric aerosols. Assumptions are made about the stratospheric sulphate aerosol loading, size distribution, lifetime, chemical make up and spatial distribution. As this study is concentrating on the physical climatological impacts over long timescales, microphysics and chemical interactive processes are not simulated. Near-surface temperatures fall by as much as 10 K globally for a few months and a considerable deviation from normal temperatures continues for several decades. A warming pattern is evident over northern land masses during the winter due to increased longwave forcing and a positive AO mode. The overturning rate of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation doubles in intensity. Snow and ice increases in extent to a maximum coverage of 35% of the Earth. Despite these and other impacts longer term climatic changes that could lead to a transition to a glaciation do not occur, for present day boundary conditions and one possible plausible aerosol loading.  相似文献   

4.
Summary For astronomical seasons, Rubincam insolation deviations at latitude 65° N varied from 218.50 Wm−2 to 225.75 Wm−2 (3%). The periodicity of the insolation cycles varied from 36.7 Kyr to 44.7 Kyr (20%) due to phase shift. Phase shift of insolation variations can induce asymmetry of the insolation cycles, permitting rapid melting and prolonged glaciation of ice sheets to occur. For instance, an abnormal decrease of the insolation frequency during the longer period of glacial interval would prolong glaciation into deep ice age. In this study, we apply Rubincam’s insolation equations to investigate the phase shift effect of insolation variations on climate change. Using complex transforms of the changing insolation, we have detected a phase modulation signal in the insolation variations. As a result, an especially new and interesting series of the phase-related insolation pulsation is established. The phase modulated insolation is then introduced as a forcing function into energy balance climate models. Results of model computations shed new insights into the spectrum of the paleoclimatic proxy-data. It is shown that phase modulation of the insolation may provide an appropriate and complete external forcing mechanism to which the climate system would respond. The 100 Kyr cycle of the frequency modulation of the Rubincam’s insolation variations does seem adequate to change the climate. Received July 16, 1997 Revised May 18, 1998  相似文献   

5.
Summary  Knowledge of ultraviolet radiation is necessary in different applications, in the absence of measurements, this radiometric flux must be estimated from available parameters. To compute this flux under all sky conditions one must consider the influence of clouds. Clouds are the largest modulators of the solar radiative flux reaching the Earth’s surface. The amount and type of cloud cover prevailing at a given time and location largely determines the amount and type of solar radiation received at the Earth’s surface. This cloud radiative effect is different for the different solar spectral bands. In this work, we analyse the cloud radiative effect over ultraviolet radiation (290–385 nm). This could be done by defining a cloud modification Factor. We have developed such cloud modification Factor considering two different types of clouds. The efficiency of the cloud radiative effect scheme has been tested in combination with a cloudless sky empirical model using independent data sets. The performance of the model has been tested in relation to its predictive capability of global ultraviolet radiation. For this purpose, data recorded at two radiometric stations are used. The first one is located at the University of Almería, a seashore location (36.83° N, 2.41° W, 20 m a.m.s.l.), while the second one is located at Granada (37.18° N, 3.58° W, 660 m a.m.s.l.), an inland location. The database includes hourly values of the relevant variables that cover the years 1993–94 in Almería and 1994–95 in Granada. Cloud cover information provided by the Spanish Meteorological Service has been include to compute the clouds radiative effect. After our study, it appears that the combination of an appropriate cloudless sky model with the cloud modification Factor scheme provides estimates of ultraviolet radiation with mean bias deviation of about 5% that is close to experimental errors. Comparisons with similar formulations of the cloud radiative effect over the whole solar spectrum provides evidence for the spectral dependency of the cloud radiative effect. Received November 15, 1999 Revised September 11, 2000  相似文献   

6.
Summary ?This is a sequel to a study of the empirical estimation of the annual mean temperature and its range, at any location on land, based on the historical surface climate record. Here the spatial patterns of the daily temperature range (DTR) and its seasonal variation are examined. The DTR is highest in the subtropical deserts and is less at high latitudes, as well as within 30–150 km from an ocean. It is generally higher in winter (summer) at low (high) latitudes. The coastal DTR reduction is explained by sea breezes, onshore advection, and low-level cloud cover. Even large bodies of water, such as Lake Michigan, affect the near-shore DTR. Elevation does not directly affect the DTR, but valleys tend to have a DTR that is 2–6 K larger than adjacent hills or ridges. The main factor affecting the DTR is the afternoon relative humidity, which is dynamically linked to low-level cloud cover. An empirical relationship between DTR and afternoon relative humidity has an uncertainty of about 1.4 K for monthly-mean values. Received March 6, 2002; revised September 20, 2002; accepted November 3, 2002  相似文献   

7.
Summary Spectral analysis of geomagnetic activity, global air temperature, Earth’s rotation rate and zonal circulation, when smoothed from secular trend and periods shorter than 23 years, shows a concentration of energy around the 60-year period explaining more than 80% of the entire variance. This information has enabled the set-up of a cascade physical model that integrates the Sun-atmosphere-Earth system as a single unit and ties solar corpuscular radiation to global warming through Earth’s rotation and atmospheric circulation. Our results suggest that changes in geomagnetic activity, and in the Earth’s rotation, could be used as long- and short-term indicators, respectively, of future changes in global air temperature.  相似文献   

8.
Spatial-temporal characteristics of temperature variation in China   总被引：5，自引：0，他引：5  
Summary Spatial-temporal characteristics of temperature variations were analyzed from China daily temperature based on 486 stations during the period 1960–2000. The method of hierarchical cluster analysis was used to divide the territory into sub-regional areas with a coherent evolution, both annually and seasonally. Areas numbering 7–9 are chosen to describe the regional features of air temperature in mainland China. All regions in mainland China experienced increasing trends of annual mean temperature. The trend of increasing temperature was about 0.2–0.3 °C/10 yr in northern China and less than 0.1 °C/10 yr in southern China. In the winter season, the increasing trend of temperature was about 0.5–0.7 °C/10 yr in northern China and about 0.2–0.3 °C/10 yr in southern China. The increasing trend of autumn temperature was mainly located in northwestern China and southwestern China including the Tibetan Plateau. In spring, the rising trend of temperature was concentrated in Northeast China and North China while there was a declining temperature trend of −0.13 °C/10 yr in the upper Yangtze River. In summer, the declining trend of temperature was only concentrated in the mid-low valley of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers while surrounding this valley there were increasing trends in South China, Southwest China, Northwest China, and Northeast China. Rapid changes in temperature in various regions were detected by the multiple timescale t-test method. The year 1969 was a rapid change point from a high temperature to a low temperature along the Yangtze River and South China. In the years 1977–1979, temperature significantly increased from a lower level to a higher level in many places except for regions in North China and the Yangtze River. Another rapid increasing temperature trend was observed in 1987. In the years 1976–1979, a positive rapid change of summer temperature occurred in northwestern China and southwestern China while a decreasing temperature was found between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. A rapid increase of winter temperature was found for 1977–1979 and 1985–1986 in many places. There were increasing events of extreme temperature in broad areas except in the north part of Northeast China and the north part of the Xinjiang region. In winter, increasing temperature of the climate state and weakening temperature extremes are observed in northern China. In summer, both increasing temperature of the climate state and enhancing temperature extremes were commonly exhibited in northern China. Present address: Linfen Meteorological Office, Linfen 041000, Shanxi Province, China.  相似文献   

9.
Volcanic and solar impacts on climate since 1700   总被引：6，自引：0，他引：6  
 Numerical experiments have been carried out with a two-dimensional sector averaged global climate model with a detailed radiative scheme in order to assess the possible impact of solar and volcanic activities on the Earth’s surface temperature at the secular time scale from 1700 to 1992. Our results indicate that while the general trend of the observed temperature variations on the century time scale can be generated in response to both the solar and volcanic forcings, these are clearly not sufficient to explain the observed 20th century warming and more specifically the warming trend which started at the beginning of the 1970s. However, the lack of volcanism during the period 1925–1960 could account, at least partly, for the observed warming trend in this period. Finally, while Schlesinger and Ramankutty (1994) assumed that random forcing could not be a possible source of the 65–70 year oscillation they detected in the global climate system, our results indicate that the volcanic forcing over the past 150 years could have introduced an oscillation of around 70 years in the Earth’s surface temperature. Received: 25 August 1997/Accepted: 27 November 1998  相似文献   

10.
Summary ?A three-dimensional Ocean General Circulation Model has been developed in stretched coordinate from scratch. The same model has been used to perform some numerical experiments to simulate the basic circulation pattern and the model variability to atmospheric forcing. For numerical simulations 72 × 25 grid points in the horizontal directions and nine (10, 30, 75, 250, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 3000 m) vertical levels are considered. The lateral boundaries are set at 60° N and 60° S. The basic focus of the paper is on the demonstration of the performance of the model and its assessment by employing appropriate forcing from the outputs of an atmospheric general circulation model. Hence, the model was forced with the forcing (wind and thermodynamic) derived from the ECMWF runs from the AMIP archives. The preliminary results show the realistic simulation of basic pattern of different fields. The model simulations show that the model is able to reproduce some of the general features of the ocean, such as surface currents, surface temperature and salinity, mass transport and meridional heat transport. It is also to be noted that the model is capable to capture the El-Ni?o and La-Ni?a type events. Received April 3, 2002; revised June 6, 2002; accepted July 24, 2002 Published online: February 20, 2003  相似文献   

11.
Summary The present study examines the long term trend in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Equatorial South India Ocean in the context of global warming for the period 1901–2002 and for a subset period 1971–2002. An attempt has also been made to identify the relationship between SST variations over three different ocean areas, and All-India and homogeneous region summer monsoon rainfall variability, including the role of El-Ni?o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Annual sea surface temperatures of the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Equatorial South India Ocean show a significant warming trend of 0.7 °C, 0.6 °C and 0.5 °C per hundred years, respectively, and a relatively accelerated warming of 0.16 °C, 0.14 °C and 0.14 °C per decade during the 1971–2002 period. There is a positive and statistically significant relationship between SSTs over the Arabian Sea from the preceding November to the current February, and Indian monsoon rainfall during the period 1901–2002. The correlation coefficient increases from October and peaks in December, decreasing from February to September. This significant relationship is also found in the recent period 1971–2002, whereas, during 1901–70, the relationship is not significant. On the seasonal scale, Arabian Sea winter SSTs are positively and significantly correlated with Indian monsoon rainfall, while spring SSTs have no significant positive relationship. Nino3 spring SSTs have a negative significant relationship with Indian monsoon rainfall and it is postulated that there is a combined effect of Nino3 and Arabian Sea SSTs on Indian monsoon. If the Nino3 SST effect is removed, the spring SSTs over the Arabian Sea also have a significant relationship with monsoon rainfall. Similarly, the Bay of Bengal and Equatorial South Indian Ocean spring SSTs are significantly and positively correlated with Indian monsoon rainfall after removing the Nino3 effect, and correlation values are more pronounced than for the Arabian Sea. Authors’ address: Dr. D. R. Kothawale, A. A. Munot, H. P. Borgaonkar, Climatology and Hydrometeorology divisions, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune 411008, India.  相似文献   

12.
 We demonstrate that a hemispherically averaged upwelling-diffusion energy-balance climate model (UD/EBM) can emulate the surface air temperature change and sea-level rise due to thermal expansion, predicted by the HadCM2 coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model, for various scenarios of anthropogenic radiative forcing over 1860–2100. A climate sensitivity of 2.6 °C is assumed, and a representation of the effect of sea-ice retreat on surface air temperature is required. In an extended experiment, with CO2 concentration held constant at twice the control run value, the HadCM2 effective climate sensitivity is found to increase from about 2.0 °C at the beginning of the integration to 3.85 °C after 900 years. The sea-level rise by this time is almost 1.0 m and the rate of rise fairly steady, implying that the final equilibrium value (the `commitment') is large. The base UD/EBM can fit the 900-year simulation of surface temperature change and thermal expansion provided that the time-dependent climate sensitivity is specified, but the vertical profile of warming in the ocean is not well reproduced. The main discrepancy is the relatively large mid-depth warming in the HadCM2 ocean, that can be emulated by (1) diagnosing depth-dependent diffusivities that increase through time; (2) diagnosing depth-dependent diffusivities for a pure-diffusion (zero upwelling) model; or (3) diagnosing higher depth-dependent diffusivities that are applied to temperature perturbations only. The latter two models can be run to equilibrium, and with a climate sensitivity of 3.85 °C, they give sea-level rise commitments of 1.7 m and 1.3 m, respectively. Received: 27 April 1999 / Accepted: 13 September 2000  相似文献   

13.
Earth’s climate sensitivity is often interpreted in terms of feedbacks that can alter the sensitivity from that of a no-feedback Stefan-Boltzmann radiator, with the feedback concept and algebra introduced by analogy to the use of this concept in the electronics literature. This analogy is quite valuable in interpreting the sensitivity of the climate system, but usage of this algebra and terminology in the climate literature is often inconsistent, with resultant potential for confusion and loss of physical insight. Here a simple and readily understood electrical resistance circuit is examined in terms of feedback theory to introduce and define the terminology that is used to quantify feedbacks. This formalism is applied to the feedbacks in an energy-balance model of Earth’s climate and used to interpret the magnitude of feedback in the climate system that corresponds to present estimates of Earth’s climate sensitivity.  相似文献   

14.
Summary The aim of this study is the evaluation of models that estimate daily global solar radiation on tilted surfaces from that measured on horizontal surfaces. Global solar radiation incident on a tilted plane consists of three components: beam radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected radiation from the ground. The Klein (1977) method, modified by Andersen (1980), was used for estimating direct solar radiation incident on tilted surfaces and an isotropic model was used for estimating reflected solar radiation incident on a tilted plane. In contrast models for the diffuse radiation component show major differences, which justifies a validation study which has been done. Eight models for derivation of daily slope diffuse irradiance from daily horizontal diffuse irradiance were tested against recorded slope irradiances at Karaj (35°55′ N; 50°56′ E), Iran. The following models were included: Badescu (2002), Tian et al. (2001), Reindl et al. (1990), Skartveit and Olseth (1986), Koronakis (1986), Steven and Unsworth (1980), Hay (1979) and Liu and Jordan (1962). All the models use the same method for calculating beam radiation as well as ground reflected radiation. However, only diffuse component of radiation was compared. Statistical indices showed that Reindl’s model gives the most accurate prediction for the south-facing surface and Koronakis’s model performs best for the west-facing surface. The Relative Root Mean Square Errors (%RMSE), except for Steven and Unsworth’s model that has unacceptable results, for whole data range from 1.02 to 10.42%. In general, Reindl’s model produces the best agreement with the measured tilted data.  相似文献   

15.
The Mediterranean has been identified as particularly vulnerable to climate change, yet a high-resolution temperature reconstruction extending back into the Medieval Warm Period is still lacking. Here we present such a record from a high-elevation site on Mt. Smolikas in northern Greece, where some of Europe’s oldest trees provide evidence of warm season temperature variability back to 730 CE. The reconstruction is derived from 192 annually resolved, latewood density series from ancient living and relict Pinus heldreichii trees calibrating at r1911–2015 = 0.73 against regional July–September (JAS) temperatures. Although the recent 1985–2014 period was the warmest 30-year interval (JAS Twrt.1961–1990 = + 0.71 °C) since the eleventh century, temperatures during the ninth to tenth centuries were even warmer, including the warmest reconstructed 30-year period from 876–905 (+ 0.78 °C). These differences between warm periods are statistically insignificant though. Several distinct cold episodes punctuate the Little Ice Age, albeit the coldest 30-year period is centered during high medieval times from 997–1026 (− 1.63 °C). Comparison with reconstructions from the Alps and Scandinavia shows that a similar cold episode occurred in central Europe but was absent at northern latitudes. The reconstructions also reveal different millennial-scale temperature trends (NEur = − 0.73 °C/1000 years, CEur = − 0.13 °C, SEur = + 0.23 °C) potentially triggered by latitudinal changes in summer insolation due to orbital forcing. These features, the opposing millennial-scale temperature trends and the medieval multi-decadal cooling recorded in Central Europe and the Mediterranean, are not well captured in state-of-the-art climate model simulations.  相似文献   

16.
 This work concerns an analysis of inter-basin and inter-layer exchanges in the component ocean part of the coupled ECHAM4/OPYC3 general circulation model, aimed at documenting the simulation of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) and related thermohaline circulations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The modeled NADW is formed mainly in the Greenland– Iceland–Norwegian Seas through a composite effect of deep convection and downward cross-isopycnal transport. The modeled deep-layer outflow of NADW can reach 16 Sv near 30 °S in the South Atlantic, with the corresponding upper-layer return flow mainly coming from the “cold water path” through Drake Passage. Less than 4 Sv of the Agulhas “leakage” water contributes to the replacement of NADW along the “warm water path”. In the South Atlantic Ocean, the model shows that some intermediate isopycnal layers with potential densities ranging between 27.0 and 27.5 are the major water source that compensate the NADW return flow and enhance the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) flowing from the Atlantic into Indian Ocean. The modeled thermohaline circulations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans indicate that the Indian Ocean may play the major role in converting deep water into intermediate water. About 16 Sv of the CDW-originating deep water enters the Indian Ocean northward of 31 °S, of which more than 13 Sv “upwell” mainly near the continental boundaries of Africa, South Asia and Australia through inter-layer exchanges and return to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) as intermediate-layer water. As a contrast, only 4 Sv of Pacific intermediate water is connected to “upwelling” flow southward across 31 °S while the magnitude of northward deep flow across 31 °S in the Pacific Ocean is significantly greater than that in the Indian Ocean. The model suggests that a large portion of the deep waters entering the Pacific Ocean (about 14 Sv) “upwells” continually into some upper layers through the thermocline, and becomes the source of the Indonesian throughflow. Uncertainties in these results may be related to the incomplete adjustment of the model’s isopycnal layers and the sensitivity of the Indonesian throughflow to the model’s geography and topography. Received: 12 August 1997/Accepted: 12 March 1998  相似文献   

17.
 The new version of the atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM), ECHAM4, at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, has been coupled to the OPYC3 isopycnic global ocean general circulation and sea ice model in a multi-century present-day climate simulation. Non-seasonal constant flux adjustment for heat and freshwater was employed to ensure a long-term annual mean state close to present-day climatology. This study examines the simulated upper ocean seasonal cycle and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific for the first 100 years. The coupled model’s seasonal cycle of tropical Pacific SSTs is satisfactory with respect to both the warm pool variation and the Central and Eastern Pacific, with significant errors only in the cold tongue around April. The cold phase cold tongue extent and strength is as observed, and for this the heat flux adjustment does not play a decisive role. A well-established South Pacific convergence zone is characteristic for the new AGCM version. Apart from extending the southeast trades seasonal maximum to midbasin, wind stress pattern and strength are captured. Overall the subsurface structure is consistent with the observed, with a pronounced thermocline at about 150 m depth in the west and rising to the surface from 160 °W to 100 °W. The current system is better resolved than in some previous global models and, on the whole, has the expected shape. The equatorial undercurrent is correctly positioned but the core is only half as strong as observed. The north equatorial current and counter-current also have reduced maximum speeds but the April minimum is captured. As with the companion publication from Roeckner et al. this study finds pronounced tropical Eastern and Central Pacific interannual variability. Simulated and observed NINO3 sea surface temperature (SST) variability is represented by a single, rather broadband, maximum of power spectral density, centered on about 28 months for the simulation and four years for the observations. For simulation and observations, SST, windstress, and upper ocean heat content each exhibit a single dominant large-scale amplitude and phase pattern, suggesting that the model captures the essential dynamics. The amplitude of the essentially standing oscillation in SST in the NINO3 region attains the observed strength, but is weaker at the eastern boundary. Anomalies of upper ocean heat content show off-equatorial westward and equatorial eastward propagation, the latter’s arrival in the east of the basin coinciding with the SST anomalies. Equatorial wind stress anomalies near the date line provide the appropriate forcing and clearly form a response to the anomalous SST. Received: 14 June 1996 / Accepted: 11 November 1997  相似文献   

18.
A numerical world ocean general circulation model   总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4  
This paper describes a numerical model of the world ocean based on the fully primitive equations. A “Standard” ocean state is introduced into the equations of the model and the perturbed thermodynamic variables are used in the modle’s calculations. Both a free upper surface and a bottom topography are included in the model and a sigma coordinate is used to normalize the model’s vertical component. The model has four unevenly-spaced layers and 4 × 5 horizontal resolution based on C-grid system. The finite-difference scheme of the model is designed to conserve the gross available energy in order to avoid fictitious energy generation or decay.The model has been tested in response to the annual mean surface wind stress, sea level air pressure and sea level air temperature as a preliminary step to its further improvement and its coupling with a global atmospheric general circulation model. Some of results, including currents, temperature and sea surface elevation simulated by the model are presented.  相似文献   

19.
Summary We present a preliminary evaluation of the performance of three different cumulus parameterization schemes in the ICTP Regional Climate Model RegCM3 for two overlapping domains (termed “big” and “small”) and horizontal resolutions (50 and 25 km) in the Caribbean area during the summer (July–August–September). The cumulus parameterizations were the Grell scheme with two closure assumptions (Arakawa–Schubert and Fritsch–Chappell) and the Anthes-Kuo scheme. An additional sensitivity test was performed by comparing two different flux parameterization schemes over the ocean (Zeng and BATS). There is a systematic underestimation of air temperature and precipitation when compared with analyzed data over the big domain area. Greater (∼2 °C) and smaller (∼0.9 °C) negative temperature biases are obtained in Grell–FC and Kuo convective scheme, respectively, and intermediate values are obtained in Grell–AS. The small domain simulation produces results substantially different, both for air temperature and precipitation. Temperature estimations are better for the small domain, while the precipitation estimations are better for the big domain. An additional experiment showed that by using BATS to calculate the ocean fluxes in the big domain instead of the Zeng scheme, precipitation increases by 25% and the share of convective precipitation rose from 18% to 45% of the total, which implies a better simulation of precipitation. These changes were attributed to an increase of near surface latent heating when using BATS over the ocean. The use of BATS also reduces the cold bias by about 0.3–0.4 °C, associated with an increase of minimum temperature. The behavior of the precipitation diurnal cycle and its relation with sea breeze was investigated in the small domain experiments. Results showed that the Grell–Arakawa–Schubert closure describes better this circulation as compared with Grell–Fritsch–Chappell closure.  相似文献   

20.
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