共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 31 毫秒
1.
Turbidity currents may feature active sediment transport and rapid bed deformation, such as those responsible for the erosion of many submarine canyons. Yet previous mathematical models are built upon simplified governing equations and involve steady flow and weak sediment transport assumptions, which are not in complete accordance with rigorous conservation laws. It so far remains unknown if these could have considerable impacts on the evolution of turbidity currents. Here a fully coupled modeling study is presented to gain new insights into the evolution of turbidity currents. The recent analysis of the multiple time scales of subaerial sediment-laden flows over erodible bed [Cao Z, Li Y, Yue Z. Multiple time scales of alluvial rivers carrying suspended sediment and their implications for mathematical modeling. Adv Water Resour 2007;30(4):715–29] is extended to subaqueous turbidity currents to complement the fully coupled modeling. Results from numerical simulations show the ability of the present coupled model to reproduce self-accelerating turbidity currents. Comparison among the fully and partially coupled and decoupled models along with the analysis of the relative time scale of bed deformation explicitly demonstrate that fully coupled modeling is essential for refined resolution of those turbidity currents featuring active sediment transport and rapid bed deformation, and existing models based on simplified conservation laws need to be reformulated. 相似文献
2.
Numerical models of continental and submarine erosion: application to the northern Ligurian Margin (Southern Alps,France/Italy) 
下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 We present a new numerical surface process model allowing us to take into account submarine erosion processes due either to submarine landslides or to hyperpycnal currents. A first set of models show that the frequency of hyperpycnal flows influences the development of submarine canyons at the mouth of continental rivers. Further experiments show that an increase in submarine slope leads to faster regressive canyon erosion and a more dentritic canyon network, whereas increasing the height of the unstable sediment pile located on the shelf break leads to wider and less dendritic canyons. The models are then applied to the western segment of the north Ligurian margin (northwestern Mediterranean), which displays numerous submarine canyons with various sizes and morphologies. From west to east, canyon longitudinal profiles as well as margin‐perpendicular profiles progressively change from moderately steep, concave‐up shapes to steeper linear to convex‐up shapes suggesting increasing eastward margin uplift. Moreover, the foot of the margin is affected by a marked slope increase with evidences of mass transport due to landslides. Numerical models which reproduce well the North Ligurian margin morphologic features indicate that the western part of the margin is submitted to rather low (i.e. 0.4 mm yr?1) uplift and intense submarine erosion due to frequent hyperpycnal currents, whereas the eastern part bears more rapid (i.e. 0.7 mm yr?1) uplift and has little or no hyperpycnal currents. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
3.
C. Caillat P. Delhavi B. Martel-Jantin R. Michel P. M. Vincent 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1981,44(2):169-176
Study of these submarine pyroclastic flows is important for two reasons:
- From a regional point of view, submarine pyroclastic flows partially explain the origin of widespread argillized glasses in the Eocene sedimentary series of Central Iran, which have diversely been described by earlier workers as Green Tuffs, Tuffaceous Muds, Green Series.
- More generally, in contrast to basaltic volcanism, submarine acid volcanism is still very poorly-known. The mechanism here proposed is as follows: starting with a submarine, highly vesiculated lava containing idiomorphic phenocrysts, gas expansion gives rise to a vitroclastic shardy facies, whereas phenocrysts are fragmented. The whole makes up a gravitational flow that is rich in pumice, glassy shards, broken crystals, and gases; it becomes increasingly turbulent and able to tear-up sea-bottom sediments in its down-stream course. This flow evolves into turbidity currents at its distal reaches.
4.
Y. R. Nayudu 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1971,35(2):402-423
Samples of basalt and palagonite tuff-breccia dredged from the East Pacific Rise and Eickelberg Ridge in the northeast Pacific contain Foraminifera, diatoms, and other microorganisms associated with sediments. Microfossils are found in large vesicles in the interior of the rock. Palagonite tuff-breccias include sediments containing microfossils. It is shown that these fossils and sediments were incorporated in the basalts and palagonite tuff-breccias during eruptions. Samples from the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and from Iceland substantiate this thesis. A model for submarine eruptions, which is an extension of Nayudu’s hypothesis for the origin of guyots, is presented. This model suggests that considerable reworking of sediments occurs during submarine eruptions. It is further concluded that: (1) Turbidity currents are generated by submarine eruptions; (2) These turbidity currents provide a mechanism for transport of volcanic material on the sea floor, which may produce graded sediments; (3) Low-velocity layers on the margins of the ridges, rises, and sea-mounts are primary pillow-palagonite tuff-breccias with intercalated sediments ranging in density from 2.00 – 2.6 g/cc. (4) Interpretation of the age of truncation of some seamounts based on fossils contained in volcanic breccias are questionable. On the contrary, these fossils may suggest the maximum age of the eruption. Observations presented on the role of submarine volcanism further suggest that some interpretations of age relations in the geologic column may need re-evaluation. 相似文献
5.
《国际泥沙研究》2020,35(6):659-665
A turbidity current is a particle-laden current driven by density differences due to suspended sediment particles. Turbidity currents can transport large amounts of sediment down slopes over great distances, and play a significant role in fluvial, lake and submarine systems. To better understand the sediment transport process, the flow system of an experimentally produced turbidity current in an inclined flume was investigated using video processing. We observed that the current progresses with constant frontal velocity and maintains an unchanged global interface geometry. In addition, the spatio-temporal profiles of the inner mean and turbulence velocity obtained by ultrasound velocity profiler (UVP) showed that similar distributions were maintained, with low dissipation. The results indicate that the turbidity current progressed in a quasi-stationary state, which enabled long-distance sediment transport. To understand the mechanisms behind the quasi-stationary flow, we analyzed the forces acting on the turbidity current. We found that under particular densities of suspended particles, the gravitational force is balanced by the viscous forces along the slope direction. We conclude that this specific force balance induces the quasi-stationary flow structure, enabling the long-distance transport of a substantial amount of sediment downstream with low dissipation. 相似文献
6.
Triassic sequences in both the western Qinling and Songpan terrane are composed mostly of deep-marine sediments. A detailed study was carried out on main sedimentary facies of Triassic successions, showing that they resulted from diverse sedimentary processes, such as submarine debris-flows, turbidity currents, bottom-flows, suspension fallout, and fluidized sediment flows. Debris-flows are dividable into two types, gravelly and sandy debris-flows, respectively, and the sandy debris-flow deposits make up considerable portion of the Triassic successions concerned. Turbidite is characterized by occurrence of normal grading, and the whole Bouma sequences, though widely developed, are not totally attributed to true turbidity currents. The non-graded Ta division is thought to originate from sandy debris flows, whereas the rest divisions result from low-density currents or from bottom-current modification if they contain sedimentary structures related to traction currents. Four types of facies associations are distinguished within Triassic deep-marine successions: massive and thick-bedded coarse-grained facies association, medium- and thick-bedded sandstone with interlayered fine-grained facies association, interlayered thin-bedded fine-grained facies association, and syn-sedimentary slump/breccia facies association. Spatial distribution of the different facies associations suggests that Lower Triassic sedimentation occurred primarily in continental slope, submarine channels, and base-of-slope aprons in the Hezuo-Jianzha region of the western Qinling, whereas the Middle Triassic consists mainly of sedimentary facies of base-of-slope aprons and submarine incised valleys. The counterparts in the Dangchang-Diebu region, in contrast, are characterized by platform carbonates. The shallow-marine carbonates evolved into deep-marine facies since the Ladinian, indicative of rapid drowning of the Carnian carbonate platform in Middle Triassic times. Depositional history of Lower Triassic and lower portion of Middle Triassic successions in the northern Songpan terrane is similar to that of the Dangchang-Diebu region of the western Qinling, as manifested by development of Lower-early Middle Triassic shallow-marine carbonate and a rapid shift to base-of-slope apron sediments since the Ladinian.
相似文献7.
José J. del Alonso Rosario M. Arias Ballesteros P. Villares Durán 《Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment (SERRA)》2007,21(3):259-272
The generation of internal lee waves (ILW) in the Strait of Gibraltar takes place in the main sill where the tidal flow interacts
with a submarine obstacle. The tidal flow is perturbed by subinertial phenomena of different nature summarized in the subinertial
currents that can inhibit the ILW generation. The authors present an attempt to randomize the problem by the introduction
of a Gaussian noise in the Taylor–Goldstein equation. The random number sets are generated from the statistical distribution
of the previously isolated random part of the subinertial currents from experimental data taken in the area during the Gibraltar
Experiment 94–96. The effect of the noise is translated into a continuous spreading of the spectrum around the solution of
the noise-free problem. A stability analysis is carried out in order to determine the single neutral modes of oscillations
and the phase space is divided onto regions of stability and instability as a function of the inflowing subinertial current.
The methodology and results could be useful for the design and timing of oceanographic surveys in straits where the ILWs occur. 相似文献
8.
—Sidescan sonar observations show that mass wasting plays an important role in the geologic development of the Savaii Island edifice. Observations on the south and west flanks indicate that debris movement on the submarine slopes between rift zones is characterized by large sheets of unchannelized debris. Farther downslope these sheets have slumped into folded although still relatively coherent slump sheets. Closer to the rift zones, more chaotic slumps are found. The presence of large detached landslide blocks, without obvious upslope headwall scarps, suggests that earlier slumps are covered by subsequent veneers of debris moving downslope.¶In contrast, on Stearns Bank west of the island of Savaii most of the features are of constructional origin, formed during the building of this volcanic edifice of unknown age. Two prominentsubmarine platforms are evident, the shallower one with a summit cone. Sea cliffs and subdued terraces record platforms cut by sea-level oscillations late in the history of the volcanic edifice. Fractures and fissures are present on the bank, however there is little evidence of landslides in this area. The absence of landslides may reflect differing ages of the bank and the island or the edifice could have remained submarine during its construction with few or no subaerially derived ashes and clays present to facilitate mass wasting.¶We conclude that mass wasting is an important influence on the evolution of the Savaii volcanic edifice. It appears that sediment and debris cover most of the slope outside the submarine rift zones. The sonar images indicate that mass wasting is a common process in the submarine environment. Unlike the giant landslides documented by GLORIA imagery around the Hawaiian Islands, the southern margin of Samoa is characterized by numerous small slumps and slides. Although we have little information at present regarding the recurrence interval for submarine landslides, their ubiquitous presence in these sidescan sonar records indicates that they are an important component of the geologic record of the Samoan Islands. 相似文献
9.
J. Trofimovs C. Foster R. S. J. Sparks S. Loughlin A. Le Friant C. Deplus L. Porritt T. Christopher R. Luckett P. J. Talling M. R. Palmer T. Le Bas 《Bulletin of Volcanology》2012,74(2):391-405
The 20th May 2006 lava dome collapse of the Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat, had a total non-dense rock equivalent (non-DRE) collapse volume of approximately 115?×?106?m3. The majority of this volume was deposited into the ocean. The collapse was rapid, 85% of the mobilized volume being removed in just 35?min, giving peak pyroclastic flow flux of 66?×?103?m3?s?1. Channel and levee facies on the submarine flanks of the volcano and formation of a thick, steep-sided ridge, suggest that the largest and most dense blocks were transported proximally as a high concentration granular flow. Of the submerged volume, 30% was deposited from the base of this granular flow, forming a linear, high-relief ridge that extends 7?km from shore. The remaining 70% of the submerged volume comprises the finer grain sizes, which were transported at least 40?km by turbidity currents on gradients of <2°. At several localities, the May 2006 distal turbidity currents ran up 200?m of topography and eroded up to 20?cm of underlying substrate. Multiple turbidites are preserved, representing current reflection from the graben margins and deflection around topography. The high energy of the May 2006 collapse resulted in longer submarine run out than the larger (210?×?106?m3) Soufrière Hills dome collapse in July 2003. 相似文献
10.
This study aims at gaining basic understanding about two specific phenomena that are observed in the highly turbid estuaries tidal Ouse, Yangtze and Ems, i.e. (1) the accumulation of suspended matter in the deeper parts of the estuaries and (2) the relatively high values of turbidity near the surface in the area of the turbidity maximum. A semi-analytical model is analysed to verify the hypothesis that these phenomena result from bottom slope-induced turbidity currents and from hindered settling, respectively. The model governs the dynamics of residual flow, driven by fresh water discharge, salinity gradients and turbidity gradients. It further uses the condition of morphodynamic equilibrium (no divergence of net sediment transport) to compute the residual sediment concentration. New aspects are that depth variations on flow and mixing processes, as well as flocculation and hindered settling of sediment, are explicitly accounted for. Tides act as a source of mixing and erosion of sediment only, thus processes like tidal pumping are not considered. Model results show that the estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) shifts in the down-slope direction, compared to the case of a constant depth. Slope-induced turbidity currents, which are directed down-slope near the bottom and up-slope near the surface, are responsible for this shift, thereby confirming the first part of the hypothesis above. The down-slope shift of the ETM is reduced by currents resulting from gradients in depth-dependent mixing, which counteract turbidity currents, but which are always weaker. Including flocculation and hindered settling yields increased surface sediment concentrations in the area of the turbidity maximum, compared to the situation of a constant settling velocity, thereby supporting the second part of the hypothesis. Sensitivity experiments reveal that the conclusions are not sensitive to the values of the model parameters. 相似文献
11.
In the southern part of Rhodes, Greece, rhyolitic subaqueous pyroclastic deposits are interbedded with Tertiary, deep water, marine sediments. The lowermost and best exposed of these deposits — the Dali Ash — is described here. The deposit has been previously described as a deep water welded subaqueous ignimbrite. This paper shows that there is no evidence of welding, and texture previously reported were misidentified. The Dali Ash consists of a lower massive unit (5 m thick), overlain by a sequence of ash-turbidites (2.5 m thick). The lower unit was deposited by a high concentration turbidity current and the ash-turbidites by dilute turbidity currents. Foraminifera are dispersed throughout the deposit and indicate that all the sedimentary gravity flows were cold water/particulate systems. A palaeomagnetic study also suggests they were deposited cold. The Dali Ash can be interpreted as the lateral equivalent of a subaerial pumiceous pyroclastic flow deposit (ignimbrite). The ash-turbidites then may be redeposited slumps off the submarine slope of the lower massive unit, or, may represent later, smaller pyroclastic flows in the eruption. Other alternatives for the origin of the Dali Ash are fully discussed to show the problems in interpreting submarine volcanigenic sediments. It is possible that the deposits are not even a primary eruptive product and are remobilized pyroclastic debris, slumped, for example, off the sides of a shallow marine rhyolitic tuff ring. 相似文献
12.
A three-dimensional(3D) numerical model of unstable turbidity currents is developed based on the mechanism of sediment transport and turbulence theory.In this model,numerical simulation of turbidity currents without subsequent supply of muddy water was conducted using the same parameters as were used in the flume experiments.The evolution process of turbidity currents of completely losing supplies observed in the experiment was simulated by the model;validation of the numerical model and the algorithm was conducted.If momentarily interrupted process is regarded as a special case of the gradually interrupted,based on the preceding numerical simulation validity,it is feasible to simulate the motion law of turbidity currents under losing gradually supplies.By this method in this article,the characteristic of sediment-laden flow of losing gradually supplies was obtained,as well as its relationship between front velocity and sediment concentration. 相似文献
13.
瑞士卢塞恩湖水下泥流的相和搬运特征——泥流转化为浊流的实例 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
本文分析了1795年在卢塞恩湖北岸韦杰斯镇附近发生了一次直接入湖的巨大碎屑流,通过该事件沉积学的研究,揭示了水下泥流不同相带的搬运特征和沉积特点,为泥流转化为浊流的研究提供了实例。 相似文献
14.
基于大型有限元软件ABAQUS中的荷载模块,添加一阶波浪力载荷模式,并结合强度折减技术,实现波浪力作用下海底斜坡稳定性与失稳机制的弹塑性有限元数值分析。引入典型算例,利用先前提出的波浪荷载下海底斜坡稳定性的极限分析上限方法开展数值解的对比验证;在此基础上,通过深入地变动参数比较分析,探讨不同波长、波高和水深等波浪参数对计算结果的影响以及波浪力影响下海底斜坡潜在滑动面的变化规律,获得波浪荷载下海底斜坡失稳滑动机制的初步认识。 相似文献
15.
Shun Nomura Giovanni De Cesare Mikito Furuichi Yasushi Takeda Hide Sakaguchi 《国际泥沙研究》2022,37(3):299-306
A turbidity current is a turbulent, particle-laden gravity current that is driven by density differences resulting from the presence of suspended sediment particles. The current travels downslope, bearing a large amount of sediment over a great distance, and forms fluvial and submarine bedforms. Knowledge of the spatio-temporal deposition profile of turbidity-deposited sediment is important for a better understanding of sediment transport by turbidity currents. In the current study, the depositi... 相似文献
16.
L. J. Ruff 《Pure and Applied Geophysics》2003,160(10-11):2155-2176
— Tsunamis are generated by displacement or motion of large volumes of water. While there are several documented cases of tsunami generation by volcanic eruptions and landslides, most observed tsunamis are attributed to earthquakes. Kinematic models of tsunami generation by earthquakes — where specified fault size and slip determine seafloor and sea-surface vertical motion — quantitatively explain far-field tsunami wave records. On the other hand, submarine landslides in subduction zones and other tectonic settings can generate large tsunamis that are hazardous along near-source coasts. Furthermore, the ongoing exploration of the oceans has found evidence for large paleo-landslides in many places, not just subduction zones. Thus, we want to know the relative contribution of faulting and landslides to tsunami generation. For earthquakes, only a small fraction of the minimum earthquake energy (less than 1% for typical parameter choices for shallow underthrusting earthquakes) can be converted into tsunami wave energy; yet, this is enough energy to generate terrible tsunamis. For submarine landslides, tsunami wave generation and landslide motion interact in a dynamic coupling. The dynamic problem of a 2-D translational slider block on a constant-angle slope can be solved using a Green's function approach for the wave transients. The key result is that the largest waves are generated when the ratio of initial water depth above the block to downslope vertical drop of the block H 0 /W sin δ is less than 1. The conversion factor of gravitational energy into tsunami wave energy varies from 0% for a slow-velocity slide in deep water, to about 50% for a fast-velocity slide in shallow water and a motion abruptly truncated. To compare maximum tsunami wave amplitudes in the source region, great earthquakes produce amplitudes of a few meters at a wavelength fixed by the fault width of 100 km or so. For submarine landslides, tsunami wave heights — as measured by b, block height — are small for most of the parameter regime. However, for low initial dynamic friction and values of H 0 /W sin δ less than 1, tsunami wave heights in the downslope and upslope directions reach b and b/4, respectively.Wavelengths of these large waves scale with block width. For significant submarine slides, the value of b can range from meters up to the kilometer scale. Thus, the extreme case of efficient tsunami generation by landslides produces dramatic hazards scenarios. 相似文献
17.
Sediment mobility in response to tidal and wind-driven flows along the Belgian inner shelf,southern North Sea 总被引：3，自引：2，他引：1
Matthias Baeye Michael Fettweis George Voulgaris Vera Van Lancker 《Ocean Dynamics》2011,61(5):611-622
The effect of hydro-meteorological forcings (tidal and wind-induced flows) on the transport of suspended particulate matter
(SPM), on the formation of high-concentrated mud suspensions and on the occurrence of sand–mud suspensions has been studied
using long-term multi-parametric observations. Data have been collected in a coastal turbidity maximum area (southern North
Sea) where a mixture of sandy and muddy sediments prevails. Data have been classified according to variations in subtidal
alongshore currents, with the direction of subtidal flow depending on wind direction. This influences the position of the
turbidity maximum; as such also the origin of SPM. Winds blowing from the NE will increase SPM concentration, whilst SW winds
will induce a decrease. The latter is related to advection of less turbid English Channel water, inducing a shift of the turbidity
maximum towards the NE and the Westerschelde estuary. Under these conditions, marine mud will be imported and buffered in
the estuary. Under persistent NE winds, high-concentrated mud suspensions are formed and remain present during several tidal
cycles. Data show that SPM consists of a mixture of flocs and locally eroded sand grains during high currents. This has implications
towards used instrumentation: SPM concentration estimates from optical backscatter sensors will only be reliable when SPM
consists of cohesive sediments only; with mixtures of cohesive and non-cohesive sediments, a combination of both optical and
acoustic sensors are needed to get an accurate estimate of the total SPM concentration. 相似文献
18.
What controls submarine channel development and the morphology of deltas entering deep-water fjords?
Jenny A. Gales Peter J. Talling Matthieu J.B. Cartigny John Hughes Clarke Gwyn Lintern Cooper Stacey Michael A. Clare 《地球表面变化过程与地形》2019,44(2):535-551
River deltas and associated turbidity current systems produce some of the largest and most rapid sediment accumulations on our planet. These systems bury globally significant volumes of organic carbon and determine the runout distance of potentially hazardous sediment flows and the shape of their deposits. Here we seek to understand the main factors that determine the morphology of turbidity current systems linked to deltas in fjords, and why some locations have well developed submarine channels while others do not. Deltas and associated turbidity current systems are analysed initially in five fjord systems from British Columbia in Canada, and then more widely. This provides the basis for a general classification of delta and turbidity current system types, where rivers enter relatively deep (>200 m) water. Fjord-delta area is found to be strongly bimodal. Avalanching of coarse-grained bedload delivered by steep mountainous rivers produces small Gilbert-type fan deltas, whose steep gradient (11°–25°) approaches the sediment's angle of repose. Bigger fjord-head deltas are associated with much larger and finer-grained rivers. These deltas have much lower gradients (1.5°–10°) that decrease offshore in a near exponential fashion. The lengths of turbidity current channels are highly variable, even in settings fed by rivers with similar discharges. This may be due to resetting of channel systems by delta-top channel avulsions or major offshore landslides, as well as the amount and rate of sediment supplied to the delta front by rivers. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
19.
Jean-François Oehler Jean-François Lénat Philippe Labazuy 《Bulletin of Volcanology》2008,70(6):717-742
This work presents the first exhaustive study of the entire surface of the Reunion Island volcanic system. The focus is on
the submarine part, for which a compilation of all multibeam data collected during the last 20 years has been made. Different
types of submarine features have been identified: a coastal shelf, debris avalanches and sedimentary deposits, erosion canyons,
volcanic constructions near the coast, and seamounts offshore. Criteria have been defined to differentiate the types of surfaces
and to establish their relative chronology where possible. Debris avalanche deposits are by far the most extensive and voluminous
formations in the submarine domain. They have built four huge Submarine Bulges to the east, north, west, and south of the
island. They form fans 20–30 km wide at the coastline and 100–150 km wide at their ends, 70–80 km offshore. They were built
gradually by the superimposition and/or juxtaposition of products moved during landslide episodes, involving up to several
hundred cubic kilometers of material. About 50 individual events deposits can be recognized at the surface. The landslides
have recurrently dismantled Piton des Neiges, Les Alizés, and Piton de La Fournaise volcanoes since 2 Ma. About one third
are interpreted as secondary landslides, affecting previously emplaced debris avalanche deposits. On land, landslide deposits
are observed in the extensively eroded central area of Piton des Neiges and in its coastal areas. Analysis of the present-day
topography and of geology allows us to identify presumed faults and scars of previous large landslides. The Submarine Bulges
are dissected and bound by canyons up to 200 m deep and 40 km long, filled with coarse-grained sediments, and generally connected
to streams onshore. A large zone of sedimentary accumulation exists to the north–east of the island. It covers a zone 20 km
in width, extending up to 15 km offshore. Volcanic constructions are observed near the coast on both Piton des Neiges and
Piton de la Fournaise volcanoes and are continuations of subaerial structures. Individual seamounts are present on the submarine
flanks and the surrounding ocean floor. A few seem to be young volcanoes, but the majority are probably old, eroded seamounts.
This study suggests a larger scale and frequency of mass-wasting events on Reunion Island compared to similar islands. The
virtual absence of downward flexure of the lithosphere beneath the island probably contributes to this feature. The increased
number of known flank–failure events has to be taken into consideration when assessing hazards from future landslides, in
particular, the probability of landslide-generated tsunamis.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
20.
Previous quantitative studies of field-scale cyclic steps are mostly based on analysis of field data. Such studies have shed light on the erosion/deposition patterns over these morphological features as well as the magnitudes of the turbidity current parameters back estimated using the measured geometry data. However, it remains unclear to what extent such back estimated hydraulic features and erosion/deposition patterns can be numerically reproduced by process-based numerical models. Here, a tw... 相似文献