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1.
Volcán Huaynaputina is a group of four vents located at 16°36'S, 70°51'W in southern Peru that produced one of the largest eruptions of historical times when ~11 km3 of magma was erupted during the period 19 February to 6 March 1600. The main eruptive vents are located at 4200 m within an erosion-modified amphitheater of a significantly older stratovolcano. The eruption proceeded in three stages. Stage I was an ~20-h sustained plinian eruption on 19-20 February that produced an extensive dacite pumice fall deposit (magma volume ~2.6 km3). Throughout medial-distal and distal parts of the dispersal area, a fine-grained plinian ashfall unit overlies the pumice fall deposit. This very widespread ash (magma volume ~6.2 km3) has been recognized in Antarctic ice cores. A short period of quiescence allowed local erosion of the uppermost stage-I deposits and was followed by renewed but intermittent explosive activity between 22 and 26 February (stage II). This activity resulted in intercalated pyroclastic flow and pumice fall deposits (~1 km3). The flow deposits are valley confined, whereas associated co-ignimbrite ash fall is found overlying the plinian ash deposit. Following another period of quiescence, vulcanian-type explosions of stage III commenced on 28 February and produced crudely bedded ash, lapilli, and bombs of dense dacite (~1 km3). Activity ceased on 6 March. Compositions erupted are predominantly high-K dacites with a phenocryst assemblage of plagioclase>hornblende>biotite>Fe-Ti oxides-apatite. Major elements are broadly similar in all three stages, but there are a few important differences. Stage-I pumice has less evolved glass compositions (~73% SiO2), lower crystal contents (17-20%), lower density (1.0-1.3 g/cm3), and phase equilibria suggest higher temperature and volatile contents. Stage-II and stage-III juvenile clasts have more evolved glass (~76% SiO2) compositions, higher crystal contents (25-35%), higher densities (up to 2.2 g/cm3), and lower temperature and volatile contents. All juvenile clasts show mineralogical evidence for thermal disequilibrium. Inflections on a plot of log thickness vs area1/2 for the fall deposits suggest that the pumice fall and the plinian ash fall were dispersed under different conditions and may have been derived from different parts of the eruption column system. The ash appears to have been dispersed mainly from the uppermost parts of the umbrella cloud by upper-level winds, whereas the pumice fall may have been derived from the lower parts of the umbrella cloud and vertical part of the eruption column and transported by a lower-altitude wind field. Thickness half distances and clast half distances for the pumice fall deposit suggests a column neutral buoyancy height of 24-32 km and a total column height of 34-46 km. The estimated mass discharge rate for the ~20-h-long stage-I eruption is 2.4᎒8 kg/s and the volumetric discharge rate is ~3.6᎒5 m3/s. The pumice fall deposit has a dispersal index (Hildreth and Drake 1992) of 4.4, and its index of fragmentation is at least 89%, reflecting the dominant volume of fines produced. Of the 11 km3 total volume of dacite magma erupted in 1600, approximately 85% was evacuated during stage 1. The three main vents range in size from ~70 to ~400 m. Alignment of these vents and a late-stage dyke parallel to the NNW-SSE trend defined by older volcanics suggest that the eruption initiated along a fissure that developed along pre-existing weaknesses. During stage I this fissure evolved into a large flared vent, vent 2, with a diameter of approximately 400 m. This vent was active throughout stage II, at the end of which a dome was emplaced within it. During stage III this dome was eviscerated forming the youngest vent in the group, vent 3. A minor extra-amphitheater vent was produced during the final event of the eruptive sequence. Recharge may have induced magma to rise away from a deep zone of magma generation and storage. Subsequently, vesiculation in the rising magma batch, possibly enhanced by interaction with an ancient hydrothermal system, triggered and fueled the sustained Plinian eruption of stage I. A lower volatile content in the stage-II and stage-III magma led to transitional column behavior and pyroclastic flow generation in stage II. Continued magma uprise led to emplacement of a dome which was subsequently destroyed during stage III. No caldera collapse occurred because no shallow magma chamber developed beneath this volcano.  相似文献   

2.
 The ca. 10,500 years B.P. eruptions at Ruapehu volcano deposited 0.2–0.3 km3 of tephra on the flanks of Ruapehu and the surrounding ring plain and generated the only known pyroclastic flows from this volcano in the late Quaternary. Evidence of the eruptions is recorded in the stratigraphy of the volcanic ring plain and cone, where pyroclastic flow deposits and several lithologically similar tephra deposits are identified. These deposits are grouped into the newly defined Taurewa Formation and two members, Okupata Member (tephra-fall deposits) and Pourahu Member (pyroclastic flow deposits). These eruptions identify a brief (<ca. 2000-year) but explosive period of volcanism at Ruapehu, which we define as the Taurewa Eruptive Episode. This Episode represents the largest event within Ruapehu's ca. 22,500-year eruptive history and also marks its culmination in activity ca. 10,000 years B.P. Following this episode, Ruapehu volcano entered a ca. 8000-year period of relative quiescence. We propose that the episode began with the eruption of small-volume pyroclastic flows triggered by a magma-mingling event. Flows from this event travelled down valleys east and west of Ruapehu onto the upper volcanic ring plain, where their distal remnants are preserved. The genesis of these deposits is inferred from the remanent magnetisation of pumice and lithic clasts. We envisage contemporaneous eruption and emplacement of distal pumice-rich tephras and proximal welded tuff deposits. The potential for generation of pyroclastic flows during plinian eruptions at Ruapehu has not been previously considered in hazard assessments at this volcano. Recognition of these events in the volcanological record is thus an important new factor in future risk assessments and mitigation of volcanic risk at Tongariro Volcanic Centre. Received: 5 July 1998 / Accepted: 12 March 1999  相似文献   

3.
 Non-welded, lithic-rich ignimbrites, hereintermed the Roque Nublo ignimbrites, are the most distinctive deposits of the Pliocene Roque Nublo group, which forms the products of second magmatic cycle on Gran Canaria. They are very heterogeneous, with 35–55% volume lithic fragments, 15-30% mildly vesiculated pumice, 5–7% crystals and 20–30% ash matrix. The vitric components (pumice fragments and ash matrix) are largely altered and transformed into zeolites and subordinate smectites. The Roque Nublo ignimbrites originated from hydrovolcanic eruptions that caused rapid and significant erosion of vents thus incorporating a high proportion of lithic clasts into the eruption columns. These columns rapidly became too dense to be sustained as vertical eruption columns and were transformed into tephra fountains which fed high-density pyroclastic flows. The deposits from these flows were mainly confined to palaeovalleys and topographic depressions. In distal areas close to the coast line, where these palaeovalleys widened, most of the pyroclastic flows expanded laterally and formed numerous thin flow units. The combined effect of the magma–water interaction and the high content of lithic fragments is sufficient to explain the characteristic low emplacement temperature of the Roque Nublo ignimbrites. This fact also explains the transition from pyroclastic flows into lahar deposits observed in distal facies of the Roque Nublo ignimbrites. The existence of hydrovolcanic eruptions generating high-density pyroclastic flows, unable to efficiently separate the water vapour from the vitric components during transport, also accounts for the intense zeolitic alteration in these deposits. Received: 5 November 1996 / Accepted: 3 March 1997  相似文献   

4.
The small- to moderate-volume, Quaternary, Siwi pyroclastic sequence was erupted during formation of a 4 km-wide caldera on the eastern margin of Tanna, an island arc volcano in southern Vanuatu. This high-potassium, andesitic eruption followed a period of effusive basaltic andesite volcanism and represents the most felsic magma erupted from the volcano. The sequence is up to 13 m thick and can be traced in near-continuous outcrop over 11 km. Facies grade laterally from lithic-rich, partly welded spatter agglomerate along the caldera rim to two medial, pumiceous, non-welded ignimbrites that are separated by a layer of lithic-rich, spatter agglomerate. Juvenile clasts comprise a wide range of densities and grain sizes. They vary between black, incipiently vesicular, highly elongate spatter clasts that have breadcrusted pumiceous rinds and reach several metres across to silky, grey pumice lapilli. The pumice lapilli range from highly vesicular clasts with tube or coalesced spherical vesicles to denser finely vesicular clasts that include lithic fragments.Textural and lithofacies characteristics of the Siwi pyroclastic sequence suggest that the first phase of the eruption produced a base surge deposit and spatter-poor pumiceous ignimbrite. A voluminous eruption of spatter and lithic pyroclasts coincided with a relatively deep withdrawal of magma presumably driven by a catastrophic collapse of the magma chamber roof. During this phase, spatter clasts rapidly accumulated in the proximal zone largely as fallout, creating a variably welded and lithic-rich agglomerate. This phase was followed by the eruption of moderately to highly vesiculated magma that generated the most widespread, upper pumiceous ignimbrite. The combination of spatter and pumice in pyroclastic deposits from a single eruption appears to be related to highly explosive, magmatic eruptions involving low-viscosity magmas. The combination also indicates the coexistence of a spatter fountain and explosive eruption plume for much of the eruption.Editorial responsibility: R. Cioni  相似文献   

5.
The 3-month long eruption of Asama volcano in 1783 produced andesitic pumice falls, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and constructed a cone. It is divided into six episodes on the basis of waxing and waning inferred from records made during the eruption. Episodes 1 to 4 were intermittent Vulcanian or Plinian eruptions, which generated several pumice fall deposits. The frequency and intensity of the eruption increased dramatically in episode 5, which started on 2 August, and culminated in a final phase that began on the night of 4 August, lasting for 15 h. This climactic phase is further divided into two subphases. The first subphase is characterized by generation of a pumice fall, whereas the second one is characterized by abundant pyroclastic flows. Stratigraphic relationships suggest that rapid growth of a cone and the generation of lava flows occurred simultaneously with the generation of both pumice falls and pyroclastic flows. The volumes of the ejecta during the first and second subphases are 0.21 km3 (DRE) and 0.27 km3 (DRE), respectively. The proportions of the different eruptive products are lava: cone: pumice fall=84:11:5 in the first subphase and lava: cone: pyroclastic flow=42:2:56 in the second subphase. The lava flows in this eruption consist of three flow units (L1, L2, and L3) and they characteristically possess abundant broken phenocrysts, and show extensive "welding" texture. These features, as well as ghost pyroclastic textures on the surface, indicate that the lava was a fountain-fed clastogenic lava. A high discharge rate for the lava flow (up to 106 kg/s) may also suggest that the lava was initially explosively ejected from the conduit. The petrology of the juvenile materials indicates binary mixing of an andesitic magma and a crystal-rich dacitic magma. The mixing ratio changed with time; the dacitic component is dominant in the pyroclasts of the first subphase of the climactic phase, while the proportion of the andesitic component increases in the pyroclasts of the second subphase. The compositions of the lava flows vary from one flow unit to another; L1 and L3 have almost identical compositions to those of pyroclasts of the first and second subphases, respectively, while L2 has an intermediate composition, suggesting that the pyroclasts of the first and second subphases were the source of the lava flows, and were partly homogenized during flow. The complex features of this eruption can be explained by rapid deposition of coarse pyroclasts near the vent and the subsequent flowage of clastogenic lavas which were accompanied by a high eruption plume generating pumice falls and/or pyroclastic flows.Editorial responsibility: T. Druitt  相似文献   

6.
Peak eruption column heights for the B1, B2, B3 and B4 units of the May 18, 1980 fall deposit from Mount St. Helens have been determined from pumice and lithic clast sizes and models of tephra dispersal. Column heights determined from the fall deposit agree well with those determined by radar measurements. B1 and B2 units were derived from plinian activity between 0900 and about 1215 hrs. B3 was formed by fallout of tephra from plumes that rose off pyroclastic flows from about 1215 to 1630 hrs. A brief return to plinian activity between 1630 and 1715 hrs was marked by a maximum in column height (19 km) during deposition of B4.Variations in magma discharge during the eruption have been reconstructed from modelling of column height during plinian discharge and mass-balance calculations based on the volume of pyroclastic flows and coignimbrite ash. Peak magma discharge occurred during the period 1215–1630 hrs, when pyroclastic flows were generated by collapse of low fountains through the crater breach. Pyroclastic flow deposits and the widely dispersed co-ignimbrite ash account for 77% of the total erupted mass, with only 23% derived from plinian discharge.A shift in eruptive style at noon on May 18 may have been associated with increase in magma discharge and the eruption of silicic andesite mingled with the dominant mafic dacite. Increasing abundance of the silicic andesite during the period of highest magma discharge is consistent with the draw-up and tapping of deeper levels in the magma reservoir, as predicted by theoretical models of magma withdrawal. Return to plinian activity late in the afternoon, when magma discharge decreased, is consistent with theoretical predictions of eruption column behavior. The dominant generation of pyroclastic flows during the May 18 eruption can be attributed to the low bulk volatile content of the magma and the increasing magma discharge that resulted in the transition from a stable, convective eruption column to a collapsing one.  相似文献   

7.
Submarine pyroclastic eruptions at depths greater than a few hundred meters are generally considered to be rare or absent because the pressure of the overlying water column is sufficient to suppress juvenile gas exsolution so that magmatic disruption and pyroclastic activity do not occur. Consideration of detailed models of the ascent and eruption of magma in a range of sea floor environments shows, however, that significant pyroclastic activity can occur even at depths in excess of 3000 m. In order to document and illustrate the full range of submarine eruption styles, we model several possible scenarios for the ascent and eruption of magma feeding submarine eruptions: (1) no gas exsolution; (2) gas exsolution but no magma disruption; (3) gas exsolution, magma disruption, and hawaiian-style fountaining; (4) volatile content builds up in the magma reservoir leading to hawaiian eruptions resulting from foam collapse; (5) magma volatile content insufficient to cause fragmentation normally but low rise speed results in strombolian activity; and (6) volatile content builds up in the top of a dike leading to vulcanian eruptions. We also examine the role of bulk-interaction steam explosivity and contact-surface steam explosivity as processes contributing to volcaniclastic formation in these environments. We concur with most earlier workers that for magma compositions typical of spreading centers and their vicinities, the most likely circumstance is the quiet effusion of magma with minor gas exsolution, and the production of somewhat vesicular pillow lavas or sheet flows, depending on effusion rate. The amounts by which magma would overshoot the vent in these types of eruptions would be insufficient to cause any magma disruption. The most likely mechanism of production of pyroclastic deposits in this environment is strombolian activity, due to the localized concentration of volatiles in magma that has a low rise rate; magmatic gas collects by bubble coalescence, and ascends in large isolated bubbles which disrupt the magma surface in the vent, producing localized blocks, bombs, and pyroclastic deposits. Another possible mode of occurrence of pyroclastic deposits results from vulcanian eruptions; these deposits, being characterized by the dominance of angular blocks of country rocks deposited in the vicinity of a crater, should be easily distinguishable from strombolian and hawaiian eruptions. However, we stress that a special case of the hawaiian eruption style is likely to occur in the submarine environment if magmatic gas buildup occurs in a magma reservoir by the upward drift of gas bubbles. In this case, a layer of foam will build up at the top of the reservoir in a sufficient concentration to exceed the volatile content necessary for disruption and hawaiian-style activity; the deposits and landforms are predicted to be somewhat different from those of a typical primary magmatic volatile-induced hawaiian eruption. Specifically, typical pyroclast sizes might be smaller; fountain heights may exceed those expected for the purely magmatic hawaiian case; cooling of descending pyroclasts would be more efficient, leading to different types of proximal deposits; and runout distances for density flows would be greater, potentially leading to submarine pyroclastic deposits surrounding vents out to distances of tens of meters to a kilometer. In addition, flows emerging after the evacuation of the foam layer would tend to be very depleted in volatiles, and thus extremely poor in vesicles relative to typical flows associated with hawaiian-style eruptions in the primary magmatic gas case. We examine several cases of reported submarine volcaniclastic deposits found at depths as great as 3000 m and conclude that submarine hawaiian and strombolian eruptions are much more common than previously suspected at mid-ocean ridges. Furthermore, the latter stages of development of volcanic edifices (seamounts) formed in submarine environments are excellent candidates for a wide range of submarine pyroclastic activity due not just to the effects of decreasing water depth, but also to: (1) the presence of a summit magma reservoir, which favors the buildup of magmatic foams (enhancing hawaiian-style activity) and episodic dike emplacement (which favors strombolian-style eruptions); and (2) the common occurrence of alkalic basalts, the CO2 contents of which favor submarine explosive eruptions at depths greater than tholeiitic basalts. These models and predictions can be tested with future sampling and analysis programs and we provide a checklist of key observations to help distinguish among the eruption styles.  相似文献   

8.
Llaima is one of the most active volcanoes of the Chilean volcanic front with recent explosive eruptions in 2008 and 2009. Understanding how the volcano evolved to its present state is essential for predictions of its future behavior. The post-glacial succession of explosive volcanic eruptions of Llaima stratovolcano started with two caldera-forming eruptions at ～16 and ～15 ka, that emplaced two large-volume basaltic-andesitic ignimbrites (unit I). These are overlain by a series of fall deposits (unit II) changing from basaltic-andesitic to dacitic compositions with time. The prominent compositionally zoned, dacitic to andesitic Llaima pumice (unit III) was formed by a large Plinian eruption at ～10 ka that produced andesitic surge deposits (unit IV) in its terminal phase. The following unit V represents a time interval of ～8,000 years during which at least 30 basaltic to andesitic ash and lapilli fall deposits with intercalated volcaniclastic sediments and paleosols were emplaced. Bulk rock, mineral, and glass chemical data constrain stratigraphic changes in magma compositions and pre-eruptive conditions that we interpret in terms of four distinct evolutionary phases. Phase 1 (=unit I) magmas have lower large ion lithophile (LIL)/high field strength (HFS) element ratios compared to younger magmas and thus originated from a mantle source less affected by slab-derived fluids. They differentiated in a reservoir at mid-crustal level. During the post-caldera phase 2 (=units II–IV), relatively long residence times between eruptions allowed for increasingly differentiated magmas to form in a reservoir in the middle crust. Fractional crystallization led to volatile enrichment and oversaturation and is the driving force for the large Plinian eruption of the most evolved (unit III) dacite at Llaima, although replenishment by hot andesite probably triggered the eruption. During the subsequent phase 3 (=unit V >3 ka), frequent mafic replenishments at mid-crustal storage levels favored shorter residence times limiting erupted magma compositions to water-undersaturated basaltic andesites and andesites. At around 3 ka, the magma storage level for phase 4 (=unit V <3 ka to present) shifted to the uppermost crust where the hot magmas partly assimilated the granitic country rock. Although water contents of these basaltic andesites were low, the low-pressure storage facilitated water saturation before eruption. The change in magma storage level at 3 ka was responsible for the dramatic increase in eruption frequency compared to the older Llaima history. We suggest that the change from middle to upper crust magma storage is caused by a change in the stress regime below Llaima from transpression to tension.  相似文献   

9.
The Pagosa Peak Dacite is an unusual pyroclastic deposit that immediately predated eruption of the enormous Fish Canyon Tuff (5000 km3) from the La Garita caldera at 28 Ma. The Pagosa Peak Dacite is thick (to 1 km), voluminous (>200 km3), and has a high aspect ratio (1:50) similar to those of silicic lava flows. It contains a high proportion (40–60%) of juvenile clasts (to 3–4 m) emplaced as viscous magma that was less vesiculated than typical pumice. Accidental lithic fragments are absent above the basal 5–10% of the unit. Thick densely welded proximal deposits flowed rheomorphically due to gravitational spreading, despite the very high viscosity of the crystal-rich magma, resulting in a macroscopic appearance similar to flow-layered silicic lava. Although it is a separate depositional unit, the Pagosa Peak Dacite is indistinguishable from the overlying Fish Canyon Tuff in bulk-rock chemistry, phenocryst compositions, and 40Ar/39Ar age.The unusual characteristics of this deposit are interpreted as consequences of eruption by low-column pyroclastic fountaining and lateral transport as dense, poorly inflated pyroclastic flows. The inferred eruptive style may be in part related to synchronous disruption of the southern margin of the Fish Canyon magma chamber by block faulting. The Pagosa Peak eruptive sources are apparently buried in the southern La Garita caldera, where northerly extensions of observed syneruptive faults served as fissure vents. Cumulative vent cross-sections were large, leading to relatively low emission velocities for a given discharge rate. Many successive pyroclastic flows accumulated sufficiently rapidly to weld densely as a cooling unit up to 1000 m thick and to retain heat adequately to permit rheomorphic flow. Explosive potential of the magma may have been reduced by degassing during ascent through fissure conduits, leading to fracture-dominated magma fragmentation at low vesicularity. Subsequent collapse of the 75×35 km2 La Garita caldera and eruption of the Fish Canyon Tuff were probably triggered by destabilization of the chamber roof as magma was withdrawn during the Pagosa Peak eruption.  相似文献   

10.
Triggering mechanisms of large silicic eruptions remain a critical unsolved problem. We address this question for the ~2.08-Ma caldera-forming eruption of Cerro Galán volcano, Argentina, which produced distinct pumice populations of two colors: grey (5%) and white (95%) that we believe may hold clues to the onset of eruptive activity. We demonstrate that the color variations correspond to both textural and compositional variations between the clast types. Both pumice types have bulk compositions of high-K, high-silica dacite to low-silica rhyolite, but there are sufficient compositional differences (e.g., ~150?ppm lower Ba at equivalent SiO2 content and 0.03?wt.% higher TiO2 in white pumice than grey) to suggest that the two pumice populations are not related by simple fractionation. Trace element concentrations in crystals mimic bulk variations between clast types, with grey pumice containing elevated Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations in both bulk samples (average Cu, Pb, and Zn concentrations are 27, 35, and 82 in grey pumice vs. 11, 19, and 60 in white pumice) and biotite phenocrysts and white pumice showing elevated Li concentrations in biotite and plagioclase phenocrysts. White and grey clasts are also texturally distinct: White pumice clasts contain abundant phenocrysts (44?C57%), lack microlites, and have highly evolved groundmass glass compositions (76.4?C79.6?wt.% SiO2), whereas grey pumice clasts contain a lower percentage of phenocrysts/microphenocrysts (35?C49%), have abundant microlites, and have less evolved groundmass glass compositions (69.4?C73.8?wt.% SiO2). There is also evidence for crystal transfer between magma producing white and grey pumice. Thin highly evolved melt rims surround some fragmental crystals in grey pumice clasts and appear to have come from magma that produced white pumice. Furthermore, based on crystal compositions, white bands within banded pumice contain crystals originating in grey magma. Finally, only grey pumice clasts form breadcrusted surface textures. We interpret these compositional and textural variations to indicate distinct magma batches, where grey pumice originated from an originally deeper, more volatile-rich dacite recharge magma that ascended through and mingled with the volumetrically dominant, more highly crystalline chamber that produced white pumice. Shortly before eruption, the grey pumice magma stalled within shallow fractures, forming a vanguard magma phase whose ascent may have provided a trigger for eruption of the highly crystalline rhyodacite magma. We suggest that in the case of the Cerro Galán eruption, grey pumice provides evidence not only for cryptic silicic recharge in a large caldera system but also a probable trigger for the eruption.  相似文献   

11.
The Amealco Tuff is a widespread (>2880 km2), trachyandesitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic deposit in the central Mexican Volcanic Belt that was erupted from the Amealco caldera at 4.7ǂ.1 Ma. It includes three major ignimbrites, each showing complex mingling of pumice fragments and matrix glass with andesitic to rhyolitic compositions. The different glasses are well mingled throughout each of the pyroclastic-flow deposits. Mingling of glasses may have occurred just before and during the explosive eruptions that produced the pyroclastic flows, as the distinct melts had insufficient time to homogenize. Mingling of glasses is evident in each of the three separate major ignimbrites of the Amealco Tuff; thus, the processes that caused it were repetitive. It is infered that the repetitive mingling of melts was due to repeated mafic magma inputs to an evolved magma chamber.  相似文献   

12.
Merapi Volcano (Central Java, Indonesia) has been frequently active during Middle to Late Holocene time producing basalts and basaltic andesites of medium-K composition in earlier stages of activity and high-K magmas from 1900 14C yr BP to the present. Radiocarbon dating of pyroclastic deposits indicates an almost continuous activity with periods of high eruption rates alternating with shorter time spans of distinctly reduced eruptive frequency since the first appearance of high-K volcanic rocks. Geochemical data of 28 well-dated, prehistoric pyroclastic flows of the Merapi high-K series indicate systematic cyclic variations. These medium-term compositional variations result from a complex interplay of several magmatic processes, which ultimately control the periodicity and frequency of eruptions at Merapi. Low eruption rates and the absence of new influxes of primitive magma from depth allow the generation of basaltic andesite magma (56–57 wt% SiO2) in a small-volume magma reservoir through fractional crystallisation from parental mafic magma (52–53 wt% SiO2) in periods of low eruptive frequency. Magmas of intermediate composition erupted during these stages provide evidence for periodic withdrawal of magma from a steadily fractionating magma chamber. Subsequent periods are characterised by high eruption rates that coincide with shifts of whole-rock compositions from basaltic andesite to basalt. This compositional variation is interpreted to originate from influxes of primitive magma into a continuously active magma chamber, triggering the eruption of evolved magma after periods of low eruptive frequency. Batches of primitive magma eventually mix with residual magma in the magmatic reservoir to decrease whole-rock SiO2 contents. Supply of primitive magma at Merapi appears to be sufficiently frequent that andesites or more differentiated rock types were not generated during the past 2000 years of activity. Cyclic variations also occurred during the recent eruptive period since AD 1883. The most recent eruptive episode of Merapi is characterised by essentially uniform magma compositions that may imply the existence of a continuously active magma reservoir, maintained in a quasi-steady state by magma recharge. The whole-rock compositions at the upper limit of the total SiO2 range of the Merapi suite could also indicate the beginning of another period of high eruption rates and shifts towards more mafic compositions.  相似文献   

13.
The majority of tephra generated during the paroxysmal 1883 eruption of Krakatau volcano, Indonesia, was deposited in the sea within a 15-km radius of the caldera. Two syneruptive pyroclastic facies have been recovered in SCUBA cores which sampled the 1883 subaqueous pyroclastic deposit. The most commonly recovered facies is a massive textured, poorly sorted mixture of pumice and lithic lapilli-to-block-sized fragments set in a silty to sandy ash matrix. This facies is indistinguishable from the 1883 subaerial pyroclastic flow deposits preserved on the Krakatau islands on the basis of grain size and component abundances. A less common facies consists of well-sorted, planarlaminated to low-angle cross-bedded, vitric-enriched silty ash. Entrance of subaerial pyroclastic flows into the sea resulted in subaqueous deposition of the massive facies primarily by deceleration and sinking of highly concentrated, deflated components of pyroclastic flows as they traveled over water. The basal component of the deposit suggests no mixing with seawater as inferred from retention of the fine ash fraction, high temperature of emplacement, and lack of traction structures, and no significant hydraulic sorting of components. The laminated facies was most likely deposited from low-concentration pyroclastic density currents generated by shear along the boundary between the submarine pyroclastic flows and seawater. The Krakatau deposits are the first well-documented example of true submarine pyroclastic flow deposition from a modern eruption, and thus constitute an important analog for the interpretation of ancient sequences where subaqueous deposition has been inferred based on the facies characteristics of encapsulating sedimentary sequences.  相似文献   

14.
 The Quaternary White Trachytic Tuffs Formation from Roccamonfina Volcano (southern Italy) comprises four non-welded, trachytic, pyroclastic sequences bounded by paleosols, each of which corresponds to small- to intermediate-volume explosive eruptions from central vents. From oldest to youngest they are: White Trachytic Tuff (WTT) Cupa, WTT Aulpi, WTT S. Clemente, and WTT Galluccio. The WTT Galluccio eruption was the largest and emplaced ∼ 4 km3 of magma. The internal stratigraphy of all four WTT eruptive units is a complex association of fallout, surge, and pyroclastic flow deposits. Each eruptive unit is organized into two facies associations, Facies Association A below Facies Association B. The emplacement of the two facies associations may have been separated by short time breaks allowing for limited reworking and erosion. Facies Association A consists of interbedded fallout deposits, surge deposits, and subordinate ignimbrites. This facies association involved the eruption of the most evolved trachytic magma, and pumice clasts are white and well vesiculated. The grain size coarsens upward in Facies Association A, with upward increases of dune bedform wavelengths and a decrease in the proportion of fine ash. These trends could reflect an increase in eruption column height from the onset of the eruption and possibly also in mass eruption rate. Facies Association B comprises massive ignimbrites that are progressively richer in lithic clast content. This association involved the eruption of more mafic magma, and pumice clasts are gray and poorly vesiculated. Facies Association B is interpreted to record the climax of the eruption. Phreatomagmatic deposits occur at different stratigraphic levels in the four WTT and have different facies characteristics. The deposits reflect the style and degree of magma–water interaction and the local hydrogeology. Very fine-grained, lithic-poor phreatomagmatic surge deposits found at the base of WTT Cupa and WTT Galluccio could record the interaction of the erupting magma with a lake that occupied the Roccamonfina summit depression. Renewed magma–water interaction later in the WTT Galluccio eruption is indicated by fine grained, lithic-bearing phreatomagmatic fall and surge deposits occurring at the top of Facies Association A. They could be interpreted to reflect shifts of the magma fragmentation level to highly transmissive, regional aquifers located beneath the Roccamonfina edifice, possibly heralding a caldera collapse event. Received: 26 August 1996 / Accepted: 27 February 1998  相似文献   

15.
Batur volcanic field (BVF) in Bali, Indonesia, underwent two successive caldera-forming eruptions, CI and CII (29,300 and 20,150 years b.p., respectively) that resulted in the deposition of dacitic ignimbrites. The respective ignimbrites show contrasted stratigraphies, exemplify the variability of dynamics associated with caldera-forming eruptions and provide insights into the possible controls exerted by caldera collapse mechanisms. The Ubud Ignimbrite is widespread and covers most of southern Bali. The deposits consist dominantly of pyroclastic flow with minor pumice fall deposits. The intra-caldera succession comprises three distinct, partially to densely welded cooling units separated by non-welded pyroclastic flow and fall deposits. The three cooling units consist of pyroclastic flow deposits only and together represent up to 16 distinct flow units, each including a thin, basal, lithic-rich breccia. This eruption was related to a 13.5×10 km caldera (CI) with a minimum collapsed volume of 62 km3. The floor of caldera CI is inferred to have a piecemeal geometry. The Ubud Ignimbrite is interpreted as the product of a relatively long-lasting, pulsating, collapsing fountain that underwent at least two time breaks. A stable column developed during the second time break. Discharge rate was high overall, but oscillatory, and increased toward the end of the eruption. These dynamics are thought to reflect sequential collapse of the CI structure. The Gunungkawi Ignimbrite is of more limited extent outside the source caldera and occurs only in central southern Bali. The Gunungkawi Ignimbrite proximal deposits consist of interbedded accretionary lapilli-bearing ash surge, ash fall, pumice lapilli fall and thin pyroclastic flow deposits, overlain by a thick and massive pyroclastic flow deposit with a thick basal lag breccia. The caldera (CII) is 7.5×6 km in size, with a minimum collapsed volume of 9 km3. The CII eruption included two distinct phases. During the first, eruption intensity was low to moderate and an unstable, essentially phreatomagmatic column developed. During the second phase, the onset of caldera collapse drastically increased the eruption intensity, resulting in column collapse. The caldera floor is believed to have subsided rapidly, producing a single, short-lived burst of high eruption intensity that resulted in the deposition of the uppermost massive pyroclastic flow.Editorial responsibility: T. Druitt  相似文献   

16.
Two major pyroclastic surges generated during the 4 April 1982 eruption of El Chichon devastated an area of 153 km2 with a quasi-radial distribution around the volcano. The hot surge clouds carbonized wood throughout their extent and were too hot to allow accretionary lapilli formation by vapor condensation. Field evidence indicates voidage fraction of 0.99 in the surge cloud with extensive entrainment of air. Thermal calculations indicate that heat content of pyroclasts can heat entrained air and maintain high temperatures in the surge cloud. The dominant bed form of the surge deposits are sand waves shaped in dune forms with vertical form index of 10–20, characterized by stoss-side erosion and lee-side deposition of 1–10 cm reversely graded laminae. A systematic decrease in maximum lithic diameter with distance from source is accompanied by decrease in wavelength and amplitude. Modal analysis indicates fractionation of glass and pumice from the surge cloud relative to crystals, resulting in loss of at least 10%–25% of the cloud mass due to winnowing out of fines during surge emplacement. Greatest fractionation from the –1.0–0.0– grain sizes reflects relatively lower pumice particle density in this range and segregation in the formative stages of the surge cloud. Extensive pumice rounding indicates abrasion during bed-load transport. Flow of pyroclastic debris in the turbulent surge cloud was by combination of bed-load and suspended-load transport. The surges are viewed as expanding pyroclastic gravity flows, which entrain and mix with air during transport. The balance between sedimentation at the base of the surge cloud and expansion due to entrainment of air contributed to low cloud density and internal turbulence, which persisted to the distal edge of the surge zone.  相似文献   

17.
Contemporary accounts of the violent eruption of Vesuvius in 1631 are reviewed, and recorded events are correlated with resulting volcanic deposits. Field study of the deposits in the proximal area revealed the presence of tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and lava, with subordinate surge deposits. A total volume of 1.1 km3 (0.55 km3 DRE) of phono-tephritic to phonolitic magma was ejected during 24 hours.The different magma compositions correspond with a transition from a lower, white, aphyric, highly vesiculated pumice (layer 1) to an upper, gray, crystal-rich, poorly vesiculated pumice (layer 3), showing reverse grading. Isopach and isopleth maps of the tephra-falls have been constructed to determine changes in the eruptive style and temporal evolution of the eruption column which reached a maximum height of 16 to 28 km.The recorded column height variations show a change in the mass discharge rate (8.9 × 106 kg/s to 8.2 × 107 kg/s) and the occurrence of pyroclastic flows during the deposition of the weakly vesiculated, dense pumice of the upper part of layer 3. Pyroclastic flows are crystal-rich and show St. Vincent-type features. The explosive phase demolished the upper part of the pre-existing cone, and debris flows invaded the southern side of the volcano. In the afternoon of December 17, 1631 an outbreak of lava flow from a southern lateral fracture system occurred, and effusion of lava continued up to midnight of December 18. Intermittent steam blasts continued to the end of December, when the eruption ended and Mount Vesuvius entered a solfataric phase. The earthquakes that had marked both the pre-eruptive and eruptive phases, continued, however, well into March 1632.  相似文献   

18.
The Pucón eruption was the largest Holocene explosive outburst of Volcán Villarrica, Chile. It discharged >1.0 km3 of basaltic-andesite magma and >0.8 km3 of pre-existing rock, forming a thin scoria-fall deposit overlain by voluminous ignimbrite intercalated with pyroclastic surge beds. The deposits are up to 70 m thick and are preserved up to 21 km from the present-day summit, post-eruptive lahar deposits extending farther. Two ignimbrite units are distinguished: a lower one (P1) in which all accidental lithic clasts are of volcanic origin and an upper unit (P2) in which basement granitoids also occur, both as free clasts and as xenoliths in scoria. P2 accounts for ∼80% of the erupted products. Following the initial scoria fallout phase, P1 pyroclastic flows swept down the northern and western flanks of the volcano, magma fragmentation during this phase being confined to within the volcanic edifice. Following a pause of at least a couple of days sufficient for wood devolatilization, eruption recommenced, the fragmentation level dropped to within the granitoid basement, and the pyroclastic flows of P2 were erupted. The first P2 flow had a highly turbulent front, laid down ignimbrite with large-scale cross-stratification and regressive bedforms, and sheared the ground; flow then waned and became confined to the southeastern flank. Following emplacement of pyroclastic surge deposits all across the volcano, the eruption terminated with pyroclastic flows down the northern flank. Multiple lahars were generated prior to the onset of a new eruptive cycle. Charcoal samples yield a probable eruption age of 3,510 ± 60 14C years BP.  相似文献   

19.
The AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius is certainly one of the most investigated explosive eruptions in the world. This makes it particularly suitable for the application of numerical models since we can be quite confident about input data, and the model predictions can be compared with field-based reconstruction of the eruption dynamics. Magma ascent along the volcanic conduit and the dispersal of pyroclasts in the atmosphere were simulated. The conduit and atmospheric domain were coupled through the flow conditions computed at the conduit exit. We simulated two different peak phases of the eruption which correspond to the emplacement of the white and gray magma types that produced Plinian fallout deposits with interlayered pyroclastic flow units during the gray phase. The input data, independently constrained and representative of each of the two eruptive phases, consist of liquid magma composition, crystal and water content, mass flow rate, and pressure–temperature–depth of the magma at the conduit entrance. A parametric study was performed on the less constrained variables such as microlite content of magma, pressure at the conduit entrance, and particle size representative of the eruptive mixture. Numerical results are substantially consistent with the reconstructed eruptive dynamics. In particular, the white eruption phase is found to lead to a fully buoyant eruption plume in all cases investigated, whereas the gray phase shows a more transitional character, i.e. the simultaneous production of a buoyant convective plume and pyroclastic surges, with a significant influence of the microlite content of magma in determining the partition of pyroclast mass between convective plumes and pyroclastic flows.  相似文献   

20.
 This paper examines the cause of color variations of trachytic pumices which are essentially uniform in chemical composition and proposes a geological model for their formation. A pyroclastic sequence of distinct subunits with brown, buff, and black pumices was deposited during the 5000-B.P. eruption of a tuff ring in the central Meidob volcanic field (Sudan). Subunits of buff pumices locally contain minor amounts of streaky pumice with pale-gray and dark-gray domains. The combined evidence of petrographic studies, chemical analyses of whole pumices and groundmass separates, electron microprobe analyses, optical spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and magnetic susceptibility measurements show that color variations of the pumice clasts are related to the size and distribution of Fe3+-rich oxide microcrysts. Buff pumice and light-gray domains of streaky pumice have a colorless, transparent groundmass with very few microcrysts. Dark-gray domains of streaky pumice contain abundant hematite and/or magnetite microcrysts visible in thin section within a transparent, colorless glass groundmass. The groundmass of the black pumice clasts is brown in thin section which is most likely caused by submicroscopic magnetite microcrysts. Brown pumice clasts have a mixed groundmass consisting of brown domains and domains with opaque microcrysts in transparent glass. Variations in the eruption dynamics have been inferred from lithological observations. Subunits of black pumices are related to eruption pulses with low magma discharge and high water/magma mass ratio, whereas subunits of buff pumice were deposited during eruption pulses with high magma discharge and low water/magma mass ratio. Brown pumices represent the top part of the magma body, and the initial stage of the eruption probably had a low magma discharge. Streaky pumices are interpreted as the product of syn-eruptive mixing of Fe3+-rich oxide microcryst-bearing magma and microcryst-free magma. Received: 3 February 1997 / Accepted: 28 July 1997  相似文献   

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