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1.
An MW6.6 earthquake occurred in eastern Hokkaido, Japan on September 6th, 2018. Based on the pre-earthquake image from Google Earth and the post-earthquake image from high resolution (3 m) planet satellite, we manually interpret 9 293 coseismic landslides and select 7 influencing factors of seismic landslide, such as elevation, slope, slope direction, road distance, flow distance, peak ground acceleration (PGA) and lithology. Then, 9 293 landslide points are randomly divided into training samples and validation samples with a proportion of 7:3. In detail, the training sample has 6 505 landslide points and the validation sample has 2 788 landslide points. The hazard risk assessment of seismic landslide is conducted by using the information value method and the study area is further divided into five risk grades, including very low risk area, low risk area, moderate risk area high risk area and very high risk area. The results show that there are 7 576 landslides in high risk area and very high risk area, accounting for 81.52% of the total landslide number, and the landslide area is 22.93 km2, accounting for 74.35% of the total area. The hazard zoning is in high accordance with the actual situation. The evaluation results are tested by using the curve of cumulative percentage of hazardous area and cumulative percentage of landslides number. The results show that the success rate of the information value method is 78.50% and the prediction rate is 78.43%. The evaluation results are satisfactory, indicating that the hazard risk assessment results based on information value method may provide scientific reference for landslide hazard risk assessment as well as the disaster prevention and mitigation in the study area.  相似文献   

2.
The 1927 Gulang M8.0 earthquake has triggered a huge number of landslides, resulting in massive loss of people''s life and property. However, integrated investigations and results regarding the landslides triggered by this earthquake are rare; such situation hinders the deep understanding of these landslides such as scale, extent, and distribution. With the support of Google Earth software, this study intends to finish the seismic landslides interpretation work in the areas of Gulang earthquake (VIII-XI degree) using the artificial visual interpretation method, and further analyze the spatial distribution and impact factors of these landslides. The results show that the earthquake has triggered at least 936 landslides in the VIII-XI degree zone, with a total landslide area of 58.6 km2. The dense area of seismic landslides is located in the middle and southern parts of the X intensity circle. Statistical analysis shows that seismic landslides is mainly controlled by factors such as elevation, slope gradient, slope direction, strata, seismic intensity, faults and rivers. The elevation of 2 000-2 800 m is the high-incidence interval of the landslide. The landslide density is larger with a higher slope gradient. East and west directions are the dominant sliding directions. The areas with Cretaceous and Quaternary strata are the main areas of the Gulang seismic landslides. The X intensity zone triggered the most landslides. In addition, landslides often occur in regions near rivers and faults. This paper provides a scientific reference for exploring the development regularities of landslides triggered by the 1927 Gulang earthquake and effectively mitigating the landslide disasters of the earthquake.  相似文献   

3.
A complete landslide inventory and attribute database is the importantly fundamental for the study of the earthquake-induced landslide. Substantial landslides were triggered by the MW7.9 Wenchuan earthquake on May 12th, 2008. Google Earth images of pre- and post-earthquakes show that 52 194 co-seismic landslides were recognized and mapped, with a total landslides area of 1 021 km2.Based on the statistics,we assigned all landslide parameters and established the co-seismic landslides database, which includes area, length, and width of landslides, elevation of the scarp top and foot edge, and the top and bottom elevations of each located slope. Finally, the spatial distribution and the above attribute parameters of landslides were analyzed. The results show that the spatial distribution of the co-seismic landslides is extremely uneven. The landslides that mainly occur in a rectangular area (a width of 30 km of the hanging wall of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault and a length of 120 km between Yingxiu and Beichuan) are obviously controlled by surface rupture, terrain, and peak ground acceleration. Meanwhile, a large number of small landslides (individual landslide area less than 10 000 m2)contribute less to the total landslides area. The number of landslides larger than 10 000 m2 accounts for 38.7% of the total number of co-seismic landslides, while the area of those landslides account for 88% of the total landslides area. The 52 194 co-seismic landslides are caused by bedrock collapse that usually consists of three parts:source area, transport area, and accumulation area. However, based on the area-volume power-law relationship, the resulting regional landslide volume may be much larger than the true landslide volume if the landslide volume is calculated using the influenced area from each landslide.  相似文献   

4.
Analyzing the spatial distribution characteristics of earthquake-induced secondary disasters based on advanced techniques is significantly important, especially in understanding the process of strong earthquakes in the Loess Pateau. Using ArcGIS, this study interprets multi-temporal high-resolution satellite images, field investigation data, and historical seismic records. Major conclusions are obtained as follows:① Landslides induced by the Haiyuan earthquake are mainly distributed in the intersection area of the end of the Haiyuan fault and Liupanshan fault, as indicated by multiple dense distribution centers; ② The landslide distribution of the Haiyuan Earthquake is determined by the distance to the fault, topographic relief, slope, lithology, and other factors. In detail, the closer the distance to the fault, the greater the density of the landslide. The greater the slope and relief of the terrain, the greater the density and the smaller the average area of a landslide. Compared with tertiary strata, Quaternary strata has a larger average area, and the density of the landslides is smaller; ③ The density curve of the death toll in the Haiyuan earthquake can be used as a reference for the distribution of co-seismic landslides. Several Haiyuan co-seismic landslides are distributed in the Tongwei landslide area; however, the major landslides here are induced by the 1718 Tongwei earthquake rather than the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake; ④ The co-seismic landslides of the Haiyuan earthquake exhibits the "slope effect" in the south-west plate of Haiyuan fault, presenting the dominant sliding direction towards the fault and epicenter; however, the "slope effect" is not evident in the northeast plate of the fault.  相似文献   

5.
The 2013-04-20 Lushan earthquake(seismic magnitude Ms 7.0 according to the State Seismological Bureau)induced a large number of landslides.In this study,spatial characteristics of landslides are developed by interpreting digital aerial photography data.Seven towns near the epicenter,with an area of about 11.11 km2,were severely affected by the earthquake,and 703 landslides were identified from April 24,2013 aerial photography data over an area of 1.185 km2.About 55.56% of the landslide area was less than 1000 m2,whereas about 3.23 % was more than 10,000 m2.Rock falls and shallow landslides were the most commonly observed types in the study area,and were primarily located in the center of Lushan County.Most landslide areas were widely distributed near river channels and along roads.Five main factors were chosen to study the distribution characteristics of landslides:elevation,slope gradients,fault,geologic unit and river system.The spatial distribution of coseismal landslides is studied statistically using both landslide point density(LPD),defined as the number of landslides(LS Number)per square kilometer,and landslide area density(LAD),interpreted as the percentage of landslides area affected by earthquake.The results show that both LPD and LAD have strong positive correlations with five main factors.Most landslides occurred in the gradient range of 40°-50° and an elevation range of 1.0-1.5 km above sea level.Statistical results also indicate that landslides were mainly formed in soft rocks such as mudstone and sandstone,and concentrated in IX intensity areas.  相似文献   

6.
Accurate volume calculation of each individual landslide triggered by strong historical earthquakes can help understand the characteristics of the typical earthquake-induced landslides, thus providing significant information for the modification of the focal parameters of historical earthquakes. In this study, we select one rock fall and three loess landslides triggered by the 1556 AD Huaxian M8 1/2 earthquake, compute their volumes using the low-altitude high-precision Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry and landslide profile restoration methods. The results show that:① the whole influencing area of the Huangjiagou Rock Fall is approximately 3.03×105 m2 and the area of the collapsed rock accumulated at the slope foot is 3.33×104 m2, accounting for approximately 10% of the entire influencing range. However, the estimated volume of the collapsed rock is only 0.699×106 m3, indicating a rock fall with large influencing range but limited collapsed rock; ② the geological form of thethree loess landslides are preserved intactly, with volumes of 0.283×108 m3, 0.074×108 m3, and 0.377×108 m3. These important geological hazard relics reflect the strong vibrations and severe casualties in the meizoseismal area; ③ loess landslides are the key reason of the serious death toll in the hilly-gully loess area. Our new method can be used to estimate the influencing area and the actual volume of each individual landslide, and rationally evaluate the role of earthquake landslides in the disaster. In addition, quantitative research on secondary disasters triggered by strong historical earthquakes is beneficial for understanding the surface process and focal parameters of the earthquakes.  相似文献   

7.
Rainfall-induced landslides have occurred frequently in Southwestern China since the Wenchuan earthquake,resulting in massive loss of people''s life and property. Fortunately,landslide early-warning is one of the most important tools for landslide hazard prevention and mitigation. However, the accumulation of historical data of the landslides induced by rainfall is limited in many remote mountain areas and the stability of the slope is easily affected by human engineering activities and environmental changes, leading to difficulties to accurately realize early warning of landslide hazards by statistical methods. The proposed warning method is divided into rainfall warning component and deformation warning component because the deformation induced by rainfall has the characteristic of hysteretic nature. Rainfall, tilted angle and crack width are chosen as monitoring indexes. Rainfall grade level that contains rainfall intensity and duration information is graded according to the variation of the safety factor calculated by 3-D finite difference numerical simulation method, and then is applied using the strength reduction method and unascertained information theory to obtain the deformation grade level of several monitored points. Finally, based on the system reliability theory, we establish a comprehensive landslide warning level method that provides four early warning levels to reflect the safety factor reductions during and post rainfall events. The application of this method at a landslide site yield generally satisfactory results and provide a new method for performing multi-index and multi-level landslide early warnings.  相似文献   

8.
In recent years, with the increase of traffic construction in mountainous areas in China, road slope traffic accidents have become more and more common. In addition, natural disasters such as landslides, collapses and subgrade settlements caused by rainfall, driving load, seasonal variation and groundwater distribution are frequent. In particular, rainfall is one of the most common factors leading to slope instability (landslide). Therefore, this paper proposes the seep module based on the application software Geo-studio, and analyzes the slope soil parameters and slope stability under five types of rainfall conditions:light rain (10 mm/d), moderate rain (25 mm/d), heavy rain (50 mm/d), rainstorm(100 mm/d), and torrential rain (250 mm/d). The critical safety factor under rainfall intensity is fitted with nonlinear curve by sine function. The results show that the fitting curve of rainfall intensity and safety factor on the upper slope is excellent. The residual points are evenly distributed in the belt area of±0.1, and the data basically conform to the nonlinear sine model, indicating that the curve plays an essential role in slope health diagnosis.  相似文献   

9.
The quantitative calculation of the volume of large earthquake-triggered landslides and related dammed lake sediments is of great significance in the study of secondary disasters and focal parameters of strong historical earthquakes. In this study, the dammed lake induced by Qishan M7 earthquake (Lingtai County, Gansu Province, Northwest China) is selected as the research object. Based on the information collected from the 4 boreholes in the dammed lake area, we further take advantage of the low-level Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry and the morphology recovery method,to calculate the volume of the dammed lake and landslides, respectively. Finally, major conclusions are obtained as follows:① the AMS-14C age at the bottom of the Qiuzigou Dammed Lake sediments is 2 890±30 BP, which coincides with the 780 BC Qishan earthquake; furthermore, the Qiuzigou Landslides seem to have been triggered by the earthquake, forming an enclosed dammed lake deposition environment after the upstream sediments accumulate;② the Qiuzigou landslides are opposite-sliding landslides that have blocked the river valley; in detail, landslide volumes at the right and left banks are 235×104 m3 and 229×104 m3, respectively. The length of the dammed lake is 2.6 km, with a thickness of approximately 43 m near the landslides, and the total sedimentary volume is 573×104 m3; ③the erosion rate of Qiuzigou Landslide Dammed Lake is 0.44 mm/a, the accumulation rate is 15.05 mm/a, and the soil erosion modulus is 593 t/(km2/a), characterized as slight erosion. Quantitative research on the formation of landslides and dammed lakes from strong historical earthquakes is vital for increasing our understanding of the vibrational characteristics and surface action processes of these types of earthquakes.  相似文献   

10.
To recognize the geographical characteristics of the landslide areas will be helpful for the watershed management in the reservoir watershed. According to the quantitative analysis, we‘ll take different scores and weighting for the potential parameters of the landslide areas in the Tsengwen reservoir watershed, and in the meanwhile, we‘ll extract the different factors, including the slope, aspect, altitude, soil and geological textures etc., and the results shown as maximum one-day rainfall, ratio of forests and average relief is the most affecting parameters on the potential risk map of landslide areas.  相似文献   

11.
定量研究区域滑坡空间分布规律，揭示不同类型滑坡的分布格局，对预测和评价滑坡危险性有重要指导意义。基于ArcGIS空间分析功能及分形理论的关联维数和盒计维数，分析了巴谢河流域黄土滑坡及黄土-泥岩滑坡的空间分布格局及其影响因素。结果表明：区域滑坡个体关联具有多尺度分形，黄土滑坡与黄土-泥岩滑坡分别在8 km、12 km尺度上存在阈值，滑坡个体在该阈值尺度前后呈现不同的相关程度，且黄土滑坡个体空间的关联程度和聚集程度均高于黄土-泥岩滑坡；黄土-泥岩滑坡分布范围广、形态复杂，其面积展布盒计维数大于黄土滑坡；地层岩性及坡度对两类滑坡分布格局的影响较大，沟壑密度次之，起伏度影响较小。  相似文献   

12.
Landslides constitute one of the major natural hazards that could cause significant losses of life and property. Mapping or delineating areas prone to landsliding is therefore essential for land‐use activities and management decision making in hilly or mountainous regions. A landslide hazard map can be constructed by a qualitative combination of maps of site conditions, including geology, topography and geomorphology, by statistical methods through correlating landslide occurrence with geologic and geomorphic factors, or by using safety factors from stability analysis. A landslide hazard map should provide information on both the spatial and temporal probabilities of landsliding in a certain area. However, most previous studies have focused on susceptibility mapping, rather than on hazard mapping in a spatiotemporal context. This study aims at developing a predictive model, based on both quasi‐static and dynamic variables, to determine the probability of landsliding in terms of space and time. The study area selected is about 13 km2 in North Lantau, Hong Kong. The source areas of the landslides caused by the rainstorms of 18 July 1992 and 4–5 November 1993 were interpreted from multi‐temporal aerial photographs. Landslide data, lithology, digital elevation model data, land cover, and rainfall data were digitized into a geographic information system database. A logistic regression model was developed using lithology, slope gradient, slope aspect, elevation, slope shape, land cover, and rolling 24 h rainfall as independent variables, since the dependent variable could be expressed in a dichotomous way. This model achieved an overall accuracy of 87·2%, with 89·5% of landslide grid cells correctly classified and found to be performing satisfactorily. The model was then applied to rainfalls of a variety of periods of return, to predict the probability of landsliding on natural slopes in space and time. It is observed that the modelling techniques described here are useful for predicting the spatiotemporal probability of landsliding and can be used by land‐use planners to develop effective management strategies. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

13.
This paper presents a landslide incidence zonation map showing the percentage of underlying material involved in mass‐movement processes in the Rio Mendoza valley, Argentina. The landslide incidence zonation map was derived from an inventory map of landslides and reveals that many areas of the Rio Mendoza valley are implicated in this kind of process. A correlation has been found between the occurrence of landslides, earthquakes, and rainfall. The relation between lithology and landslides is clear: areas covered by friable sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Choiyoi Group are prone to debris ?ows and complex landslides. The slope map has been ranked and a general relation between slope and type of event is shown. Falls commonly develop in high‐angle slopes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

14.
Strong earthquakes can not only trigger a large number of co-seismic landslides in mountainous areas, but also have an important impact on the development level of geological hazards in the disaster area. Usually, geological hazards caused by strong earthquakes will significantly increase and continue for a considerable period of time before they recover to the pre-earthquake level. Therefore, studying the evolution characteristics of landslides triggered by earthquake is particularly important for the prevention of geological disaster. In this paper, a 66km2 region in Yingxiu near the epicenter of the 2008 MS8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, which was strongly disturbed by the earthquake, was investigated. Firstly, one high-resolution satellite image before the earthquake(April, 2005) and five high-resolution satellite images after the earthquake(June, 2008; April, 2011; April, 2013; May, 2015; May, 2017)were used to interpret and catalog multi-temporal landslide inventories. Secondly, seven primary factors were analyzed in the GIS platform, including elevation, slope, aspect, curvature, stratum, lithology, and the distance from the nearest water system and the distance from seismogenic faults. Finally, the evolution of the landslide triggered by earthquake in this region was analyzed by comparing the landslide activity intensity in different periods, using the methods of correlation analysis, regression analysis, and single-factor statistical analysis. It was found that the total area of landslides in the study region decreased sharply from 2008 to 2017, with the area of the co-seismic landslide reducing from 21.41km2 to 1.33km2. This indicates that the magnitude of the landslides has recovered or is close to the pre-earthquake level. Moreover, correlation analysis shows that the elevation has a strong positive correlation with the distance from the nearest water system, and a weak positive correlation with the area. Meanwhile, there is a weak negative correlation between the distance from the nearest water system and the distance from seismogenic faults. Overall, the degree of landslide activity in the study region decreased over time, as well as the number of reactivated landslides and new landslides. The region where the area of earthquake triggered landslides decreased mainly concentrated at an elevation of 1 000m to 2 100m, a slope of 30° to 55°, an aspect of 40° to 180°, and a curvature of -2 to 2. In addition, the lithology of the Pengguan complex in the Yingxiu study region is more conducive to the occurrence of landslides, while the sedimentary rock is more conducive to the landslide recovery. When the distance from the nearest water system is more than 1 600m, the effect of the water system on the landslides gradually decreases. Also, the landslides triggered by Wenchuan earthquake in this area have the characteristics of the hanging wall effect, which means, the number of landslides in the northwestern region is much higher than that in the southeast side.  相似文献   

15.
基于证据权方法的玉树地震滑坡危险性评价   总被引：5，自引：0，他引：5       下载免费PDF全文
许冲  徐锡伟  于贵华 《地震地质》2013,35(1):151-164
玉树地震诱发了2 036处滑坡。应用地理信息系统与遥感技术,选取与地表破裂距离、峰值加速度(PGA)、高程、坡度、坡向、曲率、坡位、与水系距离、岩性、与断裂距离、与公路距离、归一化植被指数(NDVI)等12个因素作为玉树地震滑坡危险性评价因子,采用加法与减法2种证据权方法,开展玉树地震滑坡危险性评价研究工作。结果表明:基于加法证据权方法得到评价结果的正确率为80.32%,基于减法证据权方法得到结果的正确率为80.19%。将滑坡危险性评价结果图分为极高危险区、高危险区、中危险区、低危险区与极低危险区5类。这一成果可划分出滑坡危险区,为灾后滑坡防治、基础设施重建与自然环境保护提供参考。  相似文献   

16.
黄土地震滑坡危险性分析对黄土地区城镇化、工程建设的规划和地震灾害预防具有重要意义。以甘肃省定西市岷县—漳县交界处为研究区域，通过统计分析该区历史地震滑坡灾害数据，归纳并建立包含地震、坡度、坡高、坡向、地层岩性、年平均降雨量、河流流域和地貌类型等8个影响因子的评价指标体系，采用信息量模型、逻辑回归模型和信息量-逻辑回归耦合模型分别分析该区域黄土地震滑坡危险性。结果表明：(1)地震、河流和降雨是诱发黄土滑坡灾害发生的主要因素，其中地震因子贡献率最大；(2)研究区可划分为高、较高、中、低和极低危险区五个等级，其中高危险区主要集中于岷县、漳县与陇西县等地；(3)根据受试者工作特性(ROC)曲线精度检验结果，三种模型的AUC值分别为0.889、0.617和0.898,信息量-逻辑回归耦合模型结果的精确性相比其他两个模型更高。  相似文献   

17.
The extrapolation of results from field trials to larger areas of land for purposes of regional impact assessment is an important issue in geomorphology, particularly for landform properties that show high stochastic variability in space and time, such as shallow landslide erosion. It is shown in this study, that by identifying the main driver for spatial variability in shallow landslide erosion at field scales, namely slope angle, it is possible to develop a set of generic functions for assessing the impact of landslides on selected soil properties at larger spatial scales and over longer time periods. Research was conducted within an area of pastoral soft‐rock Tertiary hill country in the North Island of New Zealand that is subject to infrequent high intensity rainfall events, producing numerous landslides, most of which are smaller than several hundred square metres in size and remove soil to shallow depths. All landslides were mapped within a 0·6 km2 area and registered to a high resolution (2 m) slope map to show that few landslides occur on slopes < 20° and 95% were on slopes > 24°. The areal density of landslides from all historical events showed an approximately linear increase with slope above 24°. Integrating landslide densities with soil recovery data demonstrates that the average value of a soil property fluctuates in a ‘saw‐tooth’ fashion through time with the overall shape of the curve controlled by the frequency of landslide inducing storm events and recovery rate of the soil property between events. Despite such fluctuations, there are gradual declines of 7·5% in average total carbon content of topsoil and 9·5% in average soil depth to bedrock, since the time of forest clearance. Results have application to large‐scale sediment budget and water quality models and to the New Zealand Soil Carbon Monitoring System (CMS). Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

18.
The growing availability of digital topographic data and the increased reliability of precipitation forecasts invite modelling efforts to predict the timing and location of shallow landslides in hilly and mountainous areas in order to reduce risk to an ever‐expanding human population. Here, we exploit a rare data set to develop and test such a model. In a 1·7 km2 catchment a near‐annual aerial photographic coverage records just three single storm events over a 45 year period that produced multiple landslides. Such data enable us to test model performance by running the entire rainfall time series and determine whether just those three storms are correctly detected. To do this, we link a dynamic and spatially distributed shallow subsurface runoff model (similar to TOPMODEL) to an in?nite slope model to predict the spatial distribution of shallow landsliding. The spatial distribution of soil depth, a strong control on local landsliding, is predicted from a process‐based model. Because of its common availability, daily rainfall data were used to drive the model. Topographic data were derived from digitized 1 : 24 000 US Geological Survey contour maps. Analysis of the landslides shows that 97 occurred in 1955, 37 in 1982 and ?ve in 1998, although the heaviest rainfall was in 1982. Furthermore, intensity–duration analysis of available daily and hourly rainfall from the closest raingauges does not discriminate those three storms from others that did not generate failures. We explore the question of whether a mechanistic modelling approach is better able to identify landslide‐producing storms. Landslide and soil production parameters were ?xed from studies elsewhere. Four hydrologic parameters characterizing the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil and underlying bedrock and its decline with depth were ?rst calibrated on the 1955 landslide record. Success was characterized as the most number of actual landslides predicted with the least amount of total area predicted to be unstable. Because landslide area was consistently overpredicted, a threshold catchment area of predicted slope instability was used to de?ne whether a rainstorm was a signi?cant landslide producer. Many combinations of the four hydrological parameters performed equally well for the 1955 event, but only one combination successfully identi?ed the 1982 storm as the only landslide‐producing storm during the period 1980–86. Application of this parameter combination to the entire 45 year record successfully identi?ed the three events, but also predicted that two other landslide‐producing events should have occurred. This performance is signi?cantly better than the empirical intensity–duration threshold approach, but requires considerable calibration effort. Overprediction of instability, both for storms that produced landslides and for non‐producing storms, appears to arise from at least four causes: (1) coarse rainfall data time scale and inability to document short rainfall bursts and predict pressure wave response; (2) absence of local rainfall data; (3) legacy effect of previous landslides; and (4) inaccurate topographic and soil property data. Greater resolution of spatial and rainfall data, as well as topographic data, coupled with systematic documentation of landslides to create time series to test models, should lead to signi?cant improvements in shallow landslides forecasting. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

19.
In Japan, landslides triggered by heavy rainfall tend to occur during the annual rainy season from early June until the middle of July; these landslides constitute a major hazard causing significant property damage and loss of life. This paper proposes the use of back propagation neural networks (BPNN) to predict the probability of landslide occurrence for a scenario of heavy rainfall in the Minamata area of southern Kyushu Island, Japan. All of the landslides were detected from aerial photographs taken in 1999, 2001 and 2003, and a geospatial database of lithology, topography, soil characteristics, land use and precipitation was constructed using geographical information systems (GIS). The training sample consists of 602 cells that include landslide activity and 1600 cells in stable areas. Using the trained BPNN with 49 input nodes, three hidden layers, and one output node, 239 589 cells were processed to produce a map of landslide probability for a maximum daily precipitation of 329 mm and a maximum cumulative precipitation of 581 mm for an incessant, intense rainfall event in the future. The resultant hazard map was classified into four hazard levels; it can be referenced for land‐use planning and decision‐making for community development. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

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