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1.
How Well Can We Measure the Vertical Wind Speed? Implications for Fluxes of Energy and Mass 总被引：2，自引：2，他引：0
John Kochendorfer Tilden P. Meyers John Frank William J. Massman Mark W. Heuer 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2012,145(2):383-398
Sonic anemometers are capable of measuring the wind speed in all three dimensions at high frequencies (10–50 Hz), and are relied upon to estimate eddy-covariance-based fluxes of mass and energy over a wide variety of surfaces and ecosystems. In this study, wind-velocity measurement errors from a three-dimensional sonic anemometer with a non-orthogonal transducer orientation were estimated for over 100 combinations of angle-of-attack and wind direction using a novel technique to measure the true angle-of-attack and wind speed within the turbulent atmospheric surface layer. Corrections to the vertical wind speed varied from −5 to 37% for all angles-of-attack and wind directions examined. When applied to eddy-covariance data from three NOAA flux sites, the wind-velocity corrections increased the magnitude of CO2 fluxes, sensible heat fluxes, and latent heat fluxes by ≈11%, with the actual magnitude of flux corrections dependent upon sonic anemometer, surface type, and scalar. A sonic anemometer that uses vertically aligned transducers to measure the vertical wind speed was also tested at four angles-of-attack, and corrections to the vertical wind speed measured using this anemometer were within ±1% of zero. Sensible heat fluxes over a forest canopy measured using this anemometer were 15% greater than sensible heat fluxes measured using a sonic anemometer with a non-orthogonal transducer orientation. These results indicate that sensors with a non-orthogonal transducer orientation, which includes the majority of the research-grade three-dimensional sonic anemometers currently in use, should be redesigned to minimize sine errors by measuring the vertical wind speed using one pair of vertically aligned transducers. 相似文献
2.
3.
Two levels of triple-hot-film and sonic anemometers were deployed on a 5.5-m towerduring the Cooperative Atmospheric Surface Exchange Study (CASES-99) in October1999. Each triple-hot-film probe was collocated 50 mm from the sonic sensing path ona common boom. Various problems with using triple-hot-films in the atmosphere toresolve wind components are addressed including the derivation of a yaw angle correction using the collocated sensors. It was found that output voltage drift due to changes in environmental temperature could be monitored and corrected using an automated system. Non-unique solutions to heat transfer equations can be resolved using a collocated sonic anemometer. Multi-resolution decomposition of the hot-film data was used to estimate appropriate day and night averaging periods for turbulent flux measurements in and near the roughness sub-layer. Finally, triple-hot-film measurements of mean wind magnitude (M), turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), sensible heat flux (H), and local friction velocity (u*) are compared to those of the collocated CSAT3 sonic anemometers. Overall, the mean wind magnitudes measured by the triple-hot-film and the collocated sonic sensorswere close, consistent and independent of stability or proximity to the ground. The turbulent statistics, TKE, u*, and H, measured by the two sensor systems were reasonably close together at z = 5 m. However, the ratio of sonic measurement/hot-film measurement decreased toward the ground surface, especially during stable conditions. 相似文献
4.
S. E. Hobbs 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1994,68(3):259-273
The results of calibrations of the airspeed measurement, distance constant and cosine response for a sensitive propellor (vane) anemometer are described. A triad of these anemometers may be used to measure wind velocity, and the estimated uncertainty in this measurement is evaluated for a typical triad and a range of wind directions.The propellor anemometers tested provide sensitivity similar to that of sonic anemometers for research, but at much lower cost (although for a narrower range of wind conditions). Large arrays of the anemometers allow the spatial and temporal structure of wind turbulence to be measured directly. The anemometers have been used for several years, and are robust enough for micrometeorological research. 相似文献
5.
The frequency response of different types of sonic anemometers due to spatialaveraging of turbulent fluctuations along the sonic path is investigated byapplying modeling procedures and by sonic measurements. The data wereobtained simultaneously at up to 4 heights over extreme smooth andhomogeneous terrain during stationary situations, varying fromslightly stable to unstable. It is shown thatcorrections for the variance of the vertical wind component areneeded for measurements close to the ground. A correction procedure, based ona response function for the vertical wind and on parameters derived frompower spectra, is applied to the measurements. At a height of about onemetre, the variance of the vertical wind component is typicallyunderestimated by about 10%. The error decreases with increasing height. It isalso shown that in the height range down to one metre other turbulencequantities, as for example the variances of the horizontal wind components andthe turbulent fluxes of momentum and sensible heat, are not markedly affectedby the sonic spatial response. Experimental data support these findings. 相似文献
6.
Kochendorfer et al. (Boundary-Layer Meterol, 145:383–398, 2012) conducted an experiment to evaluate azimuth and angle-of-attack dependent errors of sonic anemometer measurements. Several questions are raised regarding the experimental design and the presented results. The finding that instruments with non-orthogonal sonic paths underestimate fluctuations of vertical wind speed and consequently also scalar fluxes by about 10 % is compared with the results of a hitherto unpublished side-by-side field comparison and other past intercomparison experiments. Scale considerations are presented that raise considerable doubts on the validity of the implicit assumption of Kochendorfer et al. (2012) that the turbulent wind vector is highly correlated across a distance of 1.2 m at a height of 2.5 m over flat grassland, which corresponds to the separation between the sonic anemometers tested in their experiment. Nevertheless, new developments in sonic anemometer design to minimize transducer-shadow effects are desirable. 相似文献
7.
S. D. Smith 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1980,19(3):273-292
The most recent of a series of thrust anemometers, designed for measurement of wind turbulence and eddy fluxes and for long-term unattended operation, is evaluated. Calibration and data analysis procedures are outlined, and results of field trials are given, showing agreement with data from a sonic anemometer. 相似文献
8.
Sonic anemometer path-averaging errors are determined for measurements of inertial-range velocity and temperature power spectra as a function of k
1 p, where k
1 is the streamwise wave number and p is the sonic path length. The attenuation of vertical velocity spectra is found to be quite similar for the CSAT3 and Solent anemometers and to be insensitive to wind direction. The attenuation of the horizontal wind component spectra is noticeably greater for the Solent sonics than for the CSAT3, but those for the CSAT3 have a greater dependence on wind direction. The attenuation of sonic temperature spectra is also found to be quite similar for the CSAT3 and Solent R3 sonics and to be insensitive to wind direction, while that of the Solent R2 is less than that of the other two sonics and has a minor dependence on wind direction. 相似文献
9.
New Equations For Sonic Temperature Variance And Buoyancy Heat Flux With An Omnidirectional Sonic Anemometer 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Many new types of sonic anemometer obtain sonic temperature from an average value of temperature measured along three paths, unlike previous sonic anemometers that generally used one path. New equations are derived to calculate temperature variance from sonic temperature variance and sensible heat flux from buoyancy flux considering the influence of a crosswind. These equations can be applied to CSAT3, Solent R2, R3, R3A, HS, and USA-1 sonic anemometers with the corresponding correction factors given in this paper. The equations are verified by data measured by a CSAT3 sonic anemometer in the LITFASS-1998 field study. 相似文献
10.
The wind data of four typhoons were obtained and analyzed. The wind speeds were measured by sonic anemometers at four observation
sites in Guangdong and Hainan provinces. Detailed analysis of the wind data was conducted to investigate the turbulence characteristics
of the typhoons. Characteristics of the gust factor and the turbulence integral scale of the typhoons were concluded with
high confidence. The relationships among the gust factor, gust duration time, mean wind speed, roughness length, and turbulence
intensity were described. The turbulence integral scale was found to be closely related to the segment length and turbulence
intensity. 相似文献
11.
In this study we examine the calibration of wind speed measured by a sonic anemometer, with an orthogonal probe configuration, with regard to the approximation of the flow angle, and the wind-speed dependence of the flow attenuation attributed to the transducer shadow. The flow angle should be calculated by the iterative method when the attenuation is relatively high. For a probe manufactured by Kaijo Co. TR-61C, the wind-speed dependence of the transducer shadow effect is formulated from the results of the wind-tunnel experiment. Assuming the equation is applicable to field observations, significant errors possibly remain especially when the wind speed is low, and /or the angle between the flow vector and the sonic path is small, if the wind-speed dependence in measurement errors is neglected. 相似文献
12.
M. G. Mennen H. J. M. A. Zwart J. E. M. Hogenkamp J. W. Erisman 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1996,81(3-4):353-371
Flow distortion errors on wind and friction velocity induced by a box simulating the housing of a gas analyzer used in dry
deposition eddy correlation measurements were determined in a field experiment. ‘Undisturbed’ and ‘disturbed’ wind and friction
velocities, measured with two dry deposition monitoring systems run simultaneously, were compared, one to the other. In the
‘disturbed’ case the box was mounted below the 3-component probe of the sonic anemometer of one of these systems, while in
the ‘undisturbed’ case the box was removed. When the probe was located on the upstream side of the box, the results showed
satisfactory agreement with theoretical estimates using Wyngaard’s potential-flow approach and a spherical model for the box.
This model can be applied to obtain first-order corrections for flow distortion errors induced by cubic-like (or spherical)
obstacles such as a gas analyzer housing used in dry deposition research systems, or to determine the optimal location of
this housing relative to the sonic probe in such systems. When the probe was located halfway downstream and halfway to the
side of the box, the experimental flow distortion errors did not exceed those for the upstream case. This implies that to
keep flow distortion errors in dry deposition systems as small as possible the sonic probe can be placed upstream but also
to the side of the gas analyzer housing. The results of our experiments also confirmed that correcting for flow distortion
with the commonly used tilt equations yields underestimated values. 相似文献
13.
R. E. Mickle N. J. Cook A. M. Hoff N. O. Jensen J. R. Salmon P. A. Taylor G. Tetzlaff H. W. Teunissen 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1988,43(1-2):143-169
This is one of a series of papers on the Askervein Hill Project. It presents results from the Askervein 1982 and 1983 experiments
in the form of vertical profiles of mean wind and turbulence integral statistics at upwind reference locations and at two
hilltop sites. The data were obtained from a variety of sensors including sonic, Gill UVW and cup anemometers mounted on 50,
30, 17 and 10 m towers and TALA kite systems. Comparisons with numerical-model predictions are discussed. 相似文献
14.
The spatial variability of turbulence in a fully-leafed almond orchard was studied. Two three-dimensional sonic anemometers were used to measure turbulence spectra and coherence at different vertical and lateral separations inside the canopy. Peak frequencies of the horizontal velocity components, normalized by local horizontal wind speed, are greater in the canopy crown than in the trunkspace. Peak-normalized frequencies for the vertical velocity power spectra are similar in the canopy crown and in the subcanopy trunkspace. Spectral slopes in the inertial subrange are more negative than those predicted with Kolmogorov's -2/3 theory. It is thought that the foliage elements act to short-circuit the eddy cascade. Lateral separation of the instruments in the subcanopy trunkspace has little effect on the shape of the velocity spectra. On the other hand, lateral and vertical velocity coherences between spatially separated sensors are low inside the canopy. These low coherences are due to the Eulerian length scales being of the same order of magnitude as the separation distances of the anemometers. Phase angles between velocity components are about zero for small separation distances. When the two instruments are separated by 9 m and one instrument is positioned in a row while the other is between two rows, vertical velocities are about 180 deg out of phase and the streamwise velocities are about 40 to 60 deg out of phase. These data support the contention that preferred differences occur between within- and between-row wind flow regimes. 相似文献
15.
In this paper, intercomparison testings of the Wind Master sonic anemometer manufactured by Gill Instruments Ltd. (U.K.) and two sonic anemometers manufactured by the Taifun Scientific Industrial Association (Obninsk, Russia), ATsAT-3M are described. Data of measurements of the standard deviations and spectrum characteristics of the vertical and horizontal wind speed components, heat and friction fluxes are presented. Dispersion of the measurements and degree of their coherence are characterized by the regression equation coefficients (a and b) and the cross-correlation coefficients. The coherence plot shows compliance of the measurements data throughout the entire frequency range. 相似文献
16.
K. H. Papadopoulos N. C. Stefantos U. S. Paulsen E. Morfiadakis 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2001,101(1):77-107
Four commercial and one research cup anemometers were comparatively tested in a complex terrain site to quantify the effects of turbulence and flow inclination on the wind speed measurements. The difference of the mean windspeed reading between the anemometers was as much as 2% for wind directions where the mean flow was horizontal. This difference was large enough to be attributed to the well-known overspeeding effect related to the differing distance constant (ranging from 1.7 to 5 m) of the cup anemometers. The application of a theoretical model of the cup-anemometer behaviour in athree-dimensional turbulent wind field proved successful in explaining theobserved differences.Additional measurements were taken with the anemometers tilted at known angles into and out of the incident wind flow. Thus, a field-derived angular response curve is constructed for each anemometer and the deviations from publishedwind-tunnel results are discussed.The uncertainties of, or false assumptions about, the angular response characteristics of the anemometers contribute the largest amount inthe observed errors of mean wind speed even for a horizontal mean flow. The angular response curves are finally used to correct the 10-min mean windspeed. The necessary information for the correction is the turbulent intensity (preferably in the vertical direction) and the mean flow inclination.For demanding applications, the angular response parameters of cup anemometers should be taken into account. The incorporation of the angular response parameters in a correction scheme would be most robustly applied if their variation with inclination and wind speed was smooth. 相似文献
17.
A one-dimensional sonic anemometer system suitable for use in measuring near surface heat fluxes is described. It operates by transferring continuous sound waves in alternate directions between a matched pair of cheap ultrasonic transducers. The design and development of the anemometer is described, together with wind tunnel tests, and field experiments, in which the performances of several prototypes are compared with those of other anemometers over stubble and over forest. The results indicate that the device is suitable for measuring eddy correlation heat fluxes to an accuracy better than 5%. 相似文献
18.
J. C. Kaimal J. E. Gaynor H. A. Zimmerman G. A. Zimmerman 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1990,53(1-2):103-115
This paper describes a simple approach to minimizing probe-induced flow distortion errors in a three-axis sonic anemometer. By separating the three axes, mutual interference between the transducers and supports in the three arrays is reduced. Only a transducer shadow correction determined from wind tunnel tests is needed to obtain measurements that are virtually insensitive to probe orientation relative to the mean flow. Preliminary results from a series of three atmospheric tests verify the effectiveness of this correction. 相似文献
19.
S. D. Smith 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1974,6(1-2):235-255
Wind, temperature and humidity fluctuations have been recorded using a sonic anemometer-thermometer, a thrust anemometer, and a La humidiometer. The two anemometers agree in wind speed and stress. Exchange coefficients for momentum, heat and moisture are found to agree with values measured over other bodies of water.Contribution 391, Bedford Institute of Oceanography.Project 75 BL, International Field Year for the Great Lakes. 相似文献
20.
Tilt corrections over complex terrain and their implication for CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> transport
Jielun Sun 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2007,124(2):143-159
Observational data from sonic anemometers are commonly rotated from sonic to streamline coordinates, a procedure that is called
tilt correction. Tilt corrections are often used to post-process air velocity data collected from sonic anemometers to allow
objective interpretation of air flow data relative to the Earth. Since streamline coordinates depend on dynamical characteristics
of the flow, the tilt correction depends not only on temporal and spatial variations of the flow, but also on local circulations.
We found that ensemble- averaged slope flows are approximately parallel to the terrain slope close to the ground within the
canopy layer, but not above, due to the influence of the diurnal variation of local vertical circulations. As a result, the
diurnal variation of the observed vertical velocity in streamline coordinates at 21.5 m above the ground over 11-m tall forest
canopies can be opposite to that calculated from the continuity equation. To estimate CO2 transport over sloping terrain, a workable reference coordinate system is needed such that multiple sonic anemometers have
a common reference relative to the Earth. Streamline coordinate systems can be the choice of the common reference coordinate
system only if flow, at least ensemble-averaged flow, is parallel to terrain slopes. The choice of the reference coordinate
system and its implication in investigation of CO2 transport are discussed.
The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation. 相似文献