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1.
Based on the theoretical background of existing models for the crosswind-integrated footprint, a new model is presented, which, in contrast to the existing models, describes the normalized footprint by a closed analytical formula. This was made possible by using well-known power profiles for wind speed and eddy viscosity instead of Monin–Obukhov based profiles at a certain stage of model development. However, the major difference between the new model and the existing models is that the so-called shape parameter of vertical plume dispersion, a function of upwind distance in the existing models, is set constant in the new model in order to circumvent a formal inconsistency found in the derivation of the existing models. Due to this inconsistency, the existing models do not generally satisfy the fundamental condition that the cumulative normalized footprint must approach unity for the upwind distance tending towards infinity.  相似文献   

2.
Numerical analysis of flux footprints for different landscapes   总被引：5，自引：0，他引：5  
Summary A model for the canopy – planetary boundary layer flow and scalar transport based on E- closure was applied to estimate footprint for CO2 fluxes over different inhomogeneous landscapes. Hypothetical heterogeneous vegetation patterns – forest with clear-cuts as well as hypothetical heterogeneous relief – a bell-shaped valley and a ridge covered by forest were considered. The distortions of airflow caused by these heterogeneities are shown – the upwind deceleration of the flow at the ridge foot and above valley, acceleration at the crest and the flow separation with the reversed flow pattern at lee slopes of ridge and valley. The disturbances induce changes in scalar flux fields within the atmospheric surface layer comparing to fluxes for homogeneous conditions: at a fixed height the fluxes vary as a function of distance to disturbance. Correspondingly, the flux footprint estimated from model data depends on the location of the point of interest (flux measurement point) and may significantly deviate from that for a flat terrain. It is shown that proposed method could be used for the choice of optimal sensor position for flux measurements over complex terrain as well as for the interpretation of data for existing measurement sites. To illustrate the latter the method was applied for experimental site in Solling, Germany, taking into account the complex topography and vegetation heterogeneities. Results show that in certain situations (summer, neutral stratification, south or north wind) and for a certain sensor location the assumptions of idealized air flow structure could be used for measurement interpretation at this site, though in general, extreme caution should be applied when analytical footprint models are used in the interpretation of flux measurements over complex sites.  相似文献   

3.
Footprint Analysis For Measurements Over A Heterogeneous Forest   总被引：8，自引：2，他引：6  
The air flow and vertical distribution of sources/sinks inside aforest canopy have been taken into accountin the analysis of the contribution of sources/sinks to measured fluxes and concentrations above a forest. Thestochastic estimators for concentrations and fluxes are described and their evaluation is performed by simulationof an ensemble of fluid parcel trajectories. The influence of the forest canopy on the footprint is important forobservation levels up to a few times the forest height. The influence of along-wind turbulent diffusion, whichanalytical atmospheric surface layer (ASL) footprint models do not account for, is significant even at higherlevels. The footprint analysis has been performed to deduce the Douglas fir canopy carbon dioxide uptake from eddycovariance flux measurements above a mixed Douglas fir–beech forest during the pre-leaf periods of the beech.The scatter in the results indicates that such an analysis is limited, presumably due to horizontal inhomogenetiesin flow statistics, which were not included in trajectory simulation. The analysis, however, is useful for theestimation of the qualitative effect of the forest canopy on the footprint function.  相似文献   

4.
Recently Du ( Boundary-Layer Meteorology 83, 207–219, 1997) estimated the value of the Lagrangian velocity structure constant, C0, in the inertial subrange by comparing experimental diffusion data and simulation results obtained with the one-dimensional form of Thomson's model ( J. Fluid Mech. 180, 529–556, 1987). Du reported that for several different flows (grid turbulence, a wind-tunnel boundary layer and the atmospheric surface layer under neutral stratification) the value of C0 is 3.0±0.5. Here, it is shown that optimal model agreement with experimental diffusion data for the wind-tunnel boundary layer is, in fact, obtained when C0=5.0 ± 0.5. It is also shown that accounting for the skewness of velocity statistics and finite Reynolds number effects does not significantly change this estimate for the value of C0. It is suggested that one-dimensional Lagrangian stochastic models are inconsistent with the supposed universality of C0.  相似文献   

5.
To test the applicability of the scintillation method over a heterogeneous area an experiment was carried out in the summer of 1998 in Flevoland (The Netherlands). In the patchy area only four crops were grown namely sugar beet, potatoes, wheat and onions. From eddy covariance measurements it was found that the heterogeneity was mainly caused by differences in thermal properties. No variations in the aerodynamics roughness length were observed. Two large aperture scintillometers were installed at a height of 11.6 and 20.4 m. A good resemblance was found between the sensible heat fluxes derived from both LAS instruments and the area-averaged fluxes obtained from the in-situ eddy covariance measurements. The slight underestimation of the lower LAS could be assessed using a blending height model and an analytical footprint model. The results also indicated that when scintillometer measurements are made below the blending height the violation to Monin–Obukhov Similarity Theory is small and that reasonable fluxes can be obtained from path-averaged structure parameters.  相似文献   

6.
Electrochemical modelling may provide fast order-of-magnitude estimates of energy and mass transfer in crops and partly fill the gap between rigid, expensive field experiments and oversimplified mathematical modelling. The technique comprises breaking up a flowing electrolyte in a manner analogous — but not necessarily completely similar — to the way the atmospheric flow is broken up by crops and studying the flow of ions in the electrolyte.The effects of variations in free-flow velocity, plant spacing, row spacing and orientation on velocity field, transfer coefficients and eddy diffusivities have been studied in an electrochemical model under conditions relevant to well-ventilated crops with relatively simple canopy structure. A one-dimensional analytical model is developed for the transfer at solid surfaces, with direct proportionality between transfer coefficient and eddy diffusivity. The proportionality constant has values in the model of (3.5±0.5)×10–3cm–1 at the ground and (5+-2)×10–4cm–1 (for a cylindrical probe) near canopy top. The latter is not too different from the values proposed for foliage surfaces in real canopies, viz., approximately 1×10–3 cm–1 (Philip, 1964) and 7×10–4 cm–1 (Uchijima, 1966). may therefore become a useful parameter in scaling transfer coefficients from systems with different molecular diffusion properties.A tentative extrapolation of measured data to corresponding values in air is given. The agreement between predicted values and presently available field data is encouraging although more precise field data are required for a final judgment on the validity of the model.This paper is published with the permission of the International Institute of Heat and Mass Transfer; an abbreviated version of the paper is given in the Proceedings, Intl. Seminar on Heat and Mass Transfer in the Environment of Vegetation, Dubrovnik, Aug. 26–30, 1974.  相似文献   

7.
We present a three-dimensional Lagrangian footprint model with the ability to predict the area of influence (footprint) of a measurement within a wide range of boundary-layer stratifications and receptor heights. The model approach uses stochastic backward trajectories of particles and satisfies the well-mixed condition in inhomogeneous turbulence for continuous transitions from stable to convective stratification. We introduce a spin-up procedure of the model and a statistical treatment of particle touchdowns which leads to a significant reduction of CPU time compared to conventional footprint modelling approaches. A comparison with other footprint models (of the analytical and Lagrangian type) suggests that the present backward Lagrangian model provides valid footprint predictions under any stratification and, moreover, for applications that reach across different similarity scaling domains (e.g., surface layer to mixed layer, for use in connection with aircraft measurements or with observations on high towers).  相似文献   

8.
Three surface-layer flux footprint models have been evaluated with the results of an SF6 tracer release experiment specifically designed to test such models. They are a Lagrangian stochastic model, an analytical model, and a simplified derivative of the analytical model. Vertical SF6 fluxes were measured by eddy correlation at four distances downwind of a near-surface crosswind line source in an area of homogeneous sagebrush. The mean fluxes were calculated for 136 half-hour test periods and compared to the fluxes predicted by the footprint models. All three models gave similar predictions and good characterizations of the footprint over the stability range -0.01 < z 0/L < 0.005. The predictions of the three models were within the limits of the uncertainty of the experimental measurements in all but a few cases within this stability range. All three models are unconditionally recommended for determining the area defined by the footprint over short vegetative canopies in this range. They are also generally appropriate for estimating flux magnitudes within the limits of experimental uncertainties. Most of the mean differences observed between the measured and predicted fluxes at each of the four towers reflect a tendency for the measured fluxes to be greater than those predicted by the three models. Rigorous verification of the models in strongly stable conditions was complicated by the need to obtain very accurate measurements of small fluxes in only marginally stationary conditions. Verification in strongly unstable conditions was hampered by the limited number of appropriate data.  相似文献   

9.
A computational scheme for an improved Mellor–Yamada(M–Y) Level-3 model with condensation physics is proposedand its performance is examined against large-eddy-simulationdata on radiation fog. The improved M–Y model greatlycorrects several shortcomings of the original M–Y model:the underestimations of the mixed-layer depth and themagnitude of turbulent kinetic energy, and the discrepanciesin the formation and dissipation times of the fog. Inaddition the improved M–Y model can reproduce theoccurrence of Kelvin–Helmholtz instability and periodicoscillations due to its energy cycle. It is shown that theoptimization of both the closure constants and the masterlength scale is required for this improvement.The improved M–Y model has an improvement also in theLevel-2.5 version. Although the performance of theLevel-2.5 version is not so good as that of the Level-3version, the former has the advantage of relatively lowcomputational cost and is popularly used in operationalweather forecasts. Our computational scheme for theimproved M–Y model allows us to switch its hierarchylevels easily according to the purpose.  相似文献   

10.
The semi-analytical model outlined in a previous study (Massman, 1987) to describe momentum exchange between the atmosphere and vegetated surfaces is extended to include the exchange of heat. The methods employed are based on one-dimensional turbulent diffusivities and use analytical solutions to the steady-state diffusion equation. The model is used to assess the influence that (1) the canopy foliage structure and density, (2) the wind profile structure within the canopy, and (3) the shelter factor can have upon the inverse surface Stanton number (kB –1) as well as to explore the consequences of introducing a scalar displacement height which can be different from the momentum displacement height. In general, the triangular foliage area density function gives results which agree more closely to observations than that for constant foliage area density. The intended application of this work and its predecessor (Massman, 1987) is for parameterizing the bulk aerodynamic resistances for heat and momentum exchange for use within large-scale models of plant-atmosphere exchanges.  相似文献   

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