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1.
为研究脊尾白虾蜕皮抑制激素基因(MIH)在环境适应中的作用,本文采用RACE技术从蜕皮间期脊尾白虾眼柄中克隆获得MIH-like基因全长c DNA序列,命名为Ec MIH。该基因全长1218bp,包括360bp的开放阅读框,420bp的5'端非编码区和394bp的3'端非编码区;开放阅读框编码120个氨基酸,包括41个氨基酸组成的信号肽和79个氨基酸组成的成熟肽,预测蛋白分子量为13.71k Da,理论等电点p I为8.02。同源性比较分析发现,脊尾白虾MIH-like基因与日本沼虾和罗氏沼虾同源性最高,分别为87%和86%。荧光定量PCR分析结果表明,脊尾白虾MIH-like基因在眼柄中的表达量最高,在卵巢中的表达量最少,而在肝脏、肌肉、鳃和血细胞中不表达。环境胁迫后该基因具有明显的时序性。p H6.5胁迫后24h和48h,眼柄和腹神经节中MIH-like基因的表达量较对照组均显著增加(P0.05);4mg/L氨氮浓度组胁迫后12h和24h,眼柄和腹神经节中MIH-like基因的表达量较对照组均显著增加(P0.05);盐度39胁迫后12h和24h,眼柄和腹神经节中MIH-like基因的表达量较对照组均显著增加(P0.05)。本研究结果表明脊尾白虾mih基因参与了环境胁迫后的机体应激反应。 相似文献
2.
过氧化氢酶(CAT)和硒谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(Se-GPx)在抗氧化防御体系中扮演重要的角色,在清除多余的活性氧自由基(ROS)防止机体氧化损伤方面具有重要的作用.本文利用RACE-PCR方法首次从脊尾白虾肝胰腺组织中克隆获得了CAT cDNA全长序列,该基因全长2649 bp,包括5′非编码区(UTR) 78 bp、开放阅读框(ORF)1554 bp和3′非编码区(UTR) 1017 bp,共编码517个氨基酸,预测分子量为58.46 kDa,理论等电点为6.64,利用PROSITE tools预测CAT基因的功能位点,发现该氨基酸序列包括酶活性中心序列“FDRERIPERVVHAKGAG”,亚铁血红素结合信号序列“RLFSYPDTH”和 3个催化位点残基His71,Asn144和Tyr354.同源性分析表明,脊尾白虾CAT氨基酸序列与其他物种的相似性为68%-92%.荧光定量PCR分析结果表明,CAT基因在肝胰腺、血细胞、心脏、肌肉、卵巢、鳃、胃和眼柄均有表达,其中在肝胰腺中表达量最高.低盐胁迫后脊尾白虾鳃和肝胰腺中CAT和GPx基因分别在48 h和6 h达到最大值,且与对照组差异显著(P< 0.05),表明CAT和GPx基因参与了低盐胁迫反应,并表现出一定时间效应关系.综合分析结果指出脊尾白虾CAT基因是CAT家族主要成员之一,可能在低盐环境胁迫过程中具有重要的作用. 相似文献
3.
为了明确脊尾白虾维甲酸X受体基因在环境胁迫和蜕皮周期中的作用,本研究通过RACE技术克隆了脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)维甲酸X受体c DNA全长,命名为Ec RXR基因,该c DNA序列全长为1323 bp,开放阅读框(ORF)为855 bp,编码一个284个氨基酸组成的蛋白质,分子量为30.918 k Da,理论等电点为PI为6.788;Ec RXR基因推导氨基酸序列经Blastp在线比对分析显示,Ec RXR与已知甲壳动物RXR的同源性为71%—90%;系统进化树分析结果显示,脊尾白虾Ec RXR的氨基酸序列与日本沼虾RXR的氨基酸序列聚为一支。荧光定量RT-PCR分析表明,Ec RXR基因在各组织中均有表达,而在眼柄相对表达量较高,血淋巴中最低。Ec RXR基因在蜕皮周期中的表达规律表明,Ec RXR基因表达在不同蜕皮时期存在明显变化,在眼柄、肝胰腺、胃和肠中整体呈现上升趋势,在鳃中呈现先下降后上升的趋势,在表皮中呈现逐渐降低的趋势。Ec RXR基因在温度、盐度胁迫过程中的表达规律分析结果发现,温度、盐度胁迫均可显著改变Ec RXR基因在鳃和肝胰腺中的表达模式,温度胁迫下Ec RXR基因在鳃中呈先上升后下降的表达趋势,肝胰腺中整体呈先上升后下降再上升再下降的表达趋势;盐度对鳃和肝胰腺的调控模式相同,均呈先升高后下降的变化趋势。本研究结果表明Ec RXR基因在脊尾白虾蜕皮发育、酶活性调控及渗透压调节中发挥重要作用,为深入研究甲壳动物维甲酸X受体基因的功能提供了重要的基础信息。 相似文献
4.
采用常规急性实验方法,研究了不同干露胁迫条件对脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)成活率的影响。结果表明,保持虾体湿润并用冰块降温的P组干露胁迫12h后成活率为75%,显著高于其它各实验组(P<0.05)。采用实时荧光定量PCR方法研究了不同干露胁迫条件对脊尾白虾血细胞和肝胰腺组织中热休克蛋白70(HSP70)和ferritin基因表达的影响。干露胁迫能诱导脊尾白虾血细胞、肝胰腺HSP70基因的表达上调,肝胰腺中的高表达时间相对血细胞中出现的较早;干露胁迫能诱导湿润低温P组脊尾白虾血细胞和肝胰腺ferritin基因的表达上调,并显著高于对照组(P<0.05),而且各组织ferritin基因表达的上调时间具有差异性,血细胞最先上调。其余实验组脊尾白虾各组织ferritin基因表达均下调,并显著低于对照组(P<0.05)。上述结果表明,在脊尾白虾受干露胁迫的耐受范围内,HSP70和ferritin基因发挥抗氧化功能。 相似文献
5.
本研究利用本实验室构建的脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)血细胞c DNA文库中的C-型凝集素基因EST序列,采用c DNA末端快速扩增(rapid amplification of c DNA end,RACE)技术克隆获得脊尾白虾C-型凝集素基因c DNA全长,命名为Ec CTL。该基因全长1285 bp,包含1041 bp的开放阅读框,编码346个氨基酸组成的蛋白质,分子量为38.56 k Da,为甘露糖型凝集素。同源性分析表明,脊尾白虾Ec CTL基因氨基酸序列与秀丽白虾(Palaemon modestus)的同源性最高,达到91%。荧光定量PCR分析结果表明,Ec CTL基因在血细胞、肝胰腺、肌肉等组织中均有表达,其中在肝胰腺当中的相对表达量最高。感染鳗弧菌(Vibrio anguillarum)和白斑综合症病毒(white spot syndrome virus,WSSV)后6~12 h,脊尾白虾血细胞和肝胰腺中Ec CTL的表达量较对照组均显著增加(P0.05),且具有明显的时间差异性。本研究证明脊尾白虾C-型凝集素在其免疫反应中起到重要作用,为进一步探索脊尾白虾免疫系统打下基础。 相似文献
6.
脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)组织蛋白酶D基因的克隆及其表达分析 总被引:2,自引:1,他引:1
采用RACE技术获得了总长为1853bp的脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)组织蛋白酶D基因全长cDNA序列。该基因5′和3′非编码区分别为120bp和572bp,开放阅读框为1161bp,推测编码386个氨基酸,预测分子量为42.36kDa,理论等电点为7.54,命名为EcCatD基因。同源性和系统进化分析表明,EcCatD基因与斑节对虾、美洲螯龙虾的相似性分别为86%和80%,与斑节对虾和美洲螯龙虾紧密聚为一支。荧光定量RT-PCR结果表明,EcCatD基因在血细胞中的相对表达量最高,其次为肝胰腺。该基因在鳗弧菌和WSSV感染后的脊尾白虾血细胞和肝胰腺中的表达量显著增加,并具有不同的时空表达趋势。结果表明EcCatD基因在脊尾白虾免疫反应中具有重要作用。 相似文献
7.
肌球蛋白重链和肌球蛋白轻链是粗肌丝的重要组成单位,其表达量的高低影响肌纤维的组成和肌肉生长。为了解析肌球蛋白重链(Myosin heavy chain,MHC)和肌球蛋白轻链(Myosin light chain,MLC)基因在脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)生长发育中的作用,采用RACE技术,克隆了脊尾白虾EcMHC2、EcMLC1全长cDNA序列,采用实时荧光定量PCR方法分析了EcMHC2、EcMLC1在脊尾白虾不同组织、不同幼体发育时期及大小差异个体在不同生长时期的表达特征。研究显示,脊尾白虾EcMHC2基因(GenBank:MG545144)全长5 929bp,开放阅读框5 727bp,编码1 909个氨基酸;脊尾白虾EcMLC1基因(GenBank:MG545145)全长1 506bp,开放阅读框459bp,编码153个氨基酸。脊尾白虾肌球蛋白重链和肌球蛋白轻链在系统进化上与其它十足目甲壳动物的关系较近。脊尾白虾EcMHC2、EcMLC1在各组织中均有表达,但主要在肌肉组织内表达。在脊尾白虾幼体发育的不同时期,EcMHC2、EcMLC1在溞状幼体Ⅱ期的表达量显著高于溞状幼体的其它时期;仔虾第一天,EcMHC2、EcMLC1的表达量显著高于其它时期。在脊尾白虾生长的四个阶段中,大个体组EcMHC2的表达量均显著的高于小个体组;60、80和120日龄时期,大个体组的EcMLC1表达量显著的高于小个体组;在大个体和小个体组中,EcMHC2、EcMLC1在80日龄的表达量最高。脊尾白虾EcMHC2、EcMLC1在大个体组与小个体组的差异表达提示它们在脊尾白虾生长发育过程中发挥重要作用。 相似文献
8.
脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)ferritin 基因克隆及表达分析 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
采用RT-PCR及RACE技术获得了总长度为755bp的脊尾白虾ferritin基因cDNA序列。该基因序列5’和3’的非编码区分别为112bp和146bp,开放阅读框497bp,推测编码169个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量19.1kDa,等电点5.46,该基因命名为Ecfer基因。利用Neighbor-joining法构建系统进化树分析结果表明,Ecfer基因氨基酸序列与无脊椎动物中的甲壳动物聚为一支(同源性为64%—67%)。此外,Ecfer基因氨基酸序列与脊椎动物铁蛋白H链同源性为53%—57%。采用荧光定量RT-PCR研究Ecfer基因在组织中以及经WSSV刺激后血淋巴、肝胰腺中的表达变化情况。研究结果表明,Ecfer在肝胰腺、卵巢、肌肉、鳃和血淋巴中均有分布。注射WSSV后3h和6h,肝胰腺和血淋巴Ecfer基因表达较对照组均显著上调(P<0.05),并具有显著的时间差异性。说明Ecfer基因可能参与了脊尾白虾抵抗WSSV入侵的免疫反应。 相似文献
9.
VASA蛋白属于DEAD-box家族蛋白,是一种RNA解旋酶,在生殖细胞的分化中具有重要作用。本研究从脊尾白虾(Exopalaemon carinicauda)卵巢中克隆得到vasa基因cDNA全长(将其命名为Ec-vasa),Ec-vasa序列长度为2516bp,开放阅读框(ORF)长度为1800bp,编码600个氨基酸,具有DEAD-box家族蛋白的8个高度保守的结构域,与日本沼虾(Macrobrachium nipponense)的同源性最高(80%)。半定量RT-PCR结果显示,Ec-vasa在卵巢组织中特异表达,在肌肉、肝胰腺、心脏和鳃等组织中均未检测到表达。荧光定量结果显示,Ec-vasa在卵巢发育Ⅰ期具有较高表达量,随着卵巢的发育,表达量逐渐降低,在第Ⅳ期达到最低水平。结果表明,Ec-vasa基因可能在脊尾白虾卵巢的早期分化和卵子发生过程中起重要作用。 相似文献
10.
pH 胁迫对脊尾白虾抗氧化酶活力的影响 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
为了了解pH胁迫下脊尾白虾(Palaemon(Exopalaemon)carinicauda Holthuis)的适应性,作者采用静水毒性的实验方法确定了脊尾白虾的半致死pH,分析了pH胁迫对脊尾白虾抗氧化酶活力的影响。设置pH4~11.1共17个胁迫组,统计脊尾白虾24、48、72和96 h的死亡率。结果显示,脊尾白虾24、48、72和96 h酸性半致死pH值分别为4.25、4.64、4.71和4.78,碱性半致死pH分别为10.87、10.55、10.38和10.29。将脊尾白虾暴露于低pH 6.5、高pH9.5的水体,以pH8.0作为对照,分别于胁迫后0、3、6、12、24、48、72和96 h测定鳃、肝胰腺、肌肉和血淋巴中总抗氧化力、过氧化氢酶、抗超氧阴离子活力。结果发现,pH胁迫后,在3~6 h内各组织中抗氧化酶活力均显著上升,24~48 h开始回落,到96 h之前,各组织中抗氧化酶水平基本恢复到对照组水平。整个实验过程中肝胰腺中抗氧化酶活力水平明显高于其他组织。本实验结果表明,脊尾白虾对pH有很强的适应性,pH胁迫3~24 h之内抗氧化酶活力反馈性升高清除体内多余的活性氧。 相似文献
11.
Coastal inundation associated with extreme sea levels is the main factor which leads to the loss of life and property whenever a severe tropical cyclonic storm hits the Indian coasts. The Andhra and Orissa coasts are most vulnerable for coastal inundation due to extreme rise in sea levels associated with tropical cyclones. Loss of life may be minimized if extreme sea levels and associated coastal flooding is predicted well in advance. Keeping this in view, location specific coastal inundation models are developed and applied for the Andhra and Orissa coasts of India. Several numerical experiments are carried out using the data of past severe cyclones that struck these regions. The simulated inland inundation distances are found to be in general agreement with the reported flooding. 相似文献
12.
This study tests the hypothesis that the in situ void ratio of surficial marine sediments may be predicted from shear wave velocity-depth data with a reliability equal to that of other methods currently available. Shear wave velocity is fundamentally controlled by the number of grain-to-grain contacts per unit volume of material and by the effective stress across those contacts. In this study, three previously established empirical formulae are used to predict void ratio from velocity-depth data. Field data were acquired along a transect off the northern Californian coast across which water depth increased from 35 to 70 m and seafloor sediment type varied from sand to silty-sand, respectively. A towed seafloor sled device was used to collect shear wave refraction data, and a marked, systematic decrease in velocity was observed along the line, ranging from 35-70 m/s for the coarse, near-shore material to 25-40 m/s for the finer, offshore deposits. Void ratios predicted from these velocities were compared with data measured directly from box-core samples. Of the formulae used for prediction, two agree remarkably well with the control data. Both predicted and control values increase from 0.6-0.8 for the sandy material to 1.1-1.5 for the silty-sand. Thus, this study does not disprove the hypothesis set and demonstrates the potential of field shear wave velocity-depth data as a means of delineating spatial variation in void ratio for surficial marine sediments in a remote, nondestructive manner. 相似文献
13.
Hoi-Soo Jung Kap-Sik Jeong Yong-Shik Chu Sung-Hyun Park Ki-Hyune Kim 《Marine Georesources & Geotechnology》2001,19(3):181-195
Grain size and water content in box-core sediments from the Clarion-Clipperton fracture zone (C-C zone) in the northeast equatorial Pacific were analyzed in detail to understand the downcore variations across a hiatus between Quaternary and Tertiary layers. Grain-size distributions in the topmost core sediments show two modes: a coarse mode (peaked at 50 μm) and a fine mode (at 2-25 μm). The coarse mode disappears gradually with depth accompanied by the dissolution of siliceous fossil tests, whereas the fine mode coarsens due to the formation of authigenic minerals. Water content increases abruptly across a color boundary between an upper pale brown layer and a lower dark brown layer that is the hiatus between Quaternary and Tertiary layers. Abundant smectites and microvoid molds, which are created by the prolonged fossil dissolution in the underlying sediment, are attributed for the abrupt downcore variation of water content. Overall variations in grain size and water content in the topmost core sediments in the western C-C zone are possibly constrained by the dissolution of biogenic siliceous fossils. Variations in geotechnical properties related to these changes must be considered in the design of nodule collectors. 相似文献
14.
Shigehisa Nakamura 《Marine Geodesy》2001,24(1):27-33
This article concerns an interrelation between the sea levels and the western boundary flow near a tectonic boundary in a local zone in the Northwestern Pacific. In this zone, sea level variations at stations located on the coast facing the Pacific are studied to find the interrelation between variations of the Kurosio flow as an index of the distance of the flow axis off a specific coast. The result is discussed after data processing of the monthly means of the sea levels, and a notice is taken of variations caused by active crustal upheavals during a seismic event, a local earthquake. 相似文献
15.
Particulate samples were collected from the Changjiang river system during a flood period, in May 1997, and POC, stable isotope and lipids associated with particles were examined. Results showed the decrease (0.84% ~ 1.88%) of organic carbon content from the upper reaches to the estuary.δ13C values of particulate organic carbon was in the range of -24.9×10-3 to -26.6×10-3, which were close to the isotopic signature of continental C3 vegetation. Total particulate n-alkanes concentrations varied from 1.4 to 10.1μg/dm3,or from 23.7 to 107μg/g of total suspended matter. Fatty acids were present in all the samples, from 1.4 to 5.4μg/dm3, with saturated and unsaturated straight-chain and branched compounds in the carbon number range from C12 to C30. Both δ13C and the ratio of carbon content to nitrogen content indicate the predominance of terrestrial inputs (soil organic matter) among the particles. The biomarker approach has been used to identify the relative portion of terrigenous and autochthonous fraction in the particulate samples. The distribution of fatty acids suggests a striking phytoplanktonic and microbial signal in most particle samples. The terrestrial alkanes are used to estimate the contribution of terrestrial inputs along the mainstream. 相似文献
16.
Andrzej Chybicki 《Marine Geodesy》2018,41(1):1-23
Current trends of development of satellite derived bathymetry (SDB) models rely on applying calibration techniques including analytical approaches, neuro-fuzzy systems, regression optimization and others. In most of the cases, the SDB models are calibrated and verified for test sites, that provide favorable conditions for the remote derivation of bathymetry such as high water clarity, homogenous bottom type, low amount of sediment in the water and other factors. In this paper, a novel 3-dimensional geographical weighted regression (3GWR) SDB technique is presented, it binds together methods already presented in other studies, the geographically weighted local regression (GWR) model, with depth dependent inverse optimization. The proposed SDB model was calibrated and verified on a relatively difficult test site of the South Baltic near-shore areas with the use of multispectral observations acquired by a recently launched Sentinel-2 satellite observation system. By conducted experiments, it was shown that the proposed SDB model is capable of obtaining satisfactory results of RMSE ranging from 0.88 to 1.23[m] depending on the observation and can derive bathymetry for depths up to 12m. It was also shown, that the proposed approach may be used operationally, for instance, in the continuous assessment of temporal bathymetry changes, for areas important in the context of ensuring local maritime safety. 相似文献
17.
N. H. Khadge 《Marine Georesources & Geotechnology》2000,18(3):251-258
As a part of the environmental impact assessment studies, geotechnical properties of sediments were determined in the Central Indian Basin. The undrained shear strength and index properties of the siliceous sediments were determined on 20 box cores of uniform dimension collected from various locations in five preselected sites. The maximum core length encountered was 41 cm and most of the sediments were siliceous oozes consisting of radiolarian or diatomaceous tests. The shear strength measurements revealed that surface sediments deposited in recent times (0-10 cm) have a shear strength of 0-1 kPa; this value increases with depth, reaching 10 kPa at 40 cm deep. Older sediments have greater strength because of compaction. Water content varies in the wide range of 312-577% and decreases with depth. The clay minerals such as smectite and illite are dominant and show some control over water content. Wet density, specific gravity, and porosity do not indicate any notable variation with depth, thereby indicating a uniform, slow rate of sedimentation. The average porosity of sediments is 90.2%, specific gravity 2.18, and wet bulk density 1.12 g/cm 3 . Sediments exhibit medium to high plasticity characteristics, with the average plasticity index varying between 105% and 136%. Preliminary studies on postdisturbance samples showed an increase in natural water content and a decrease in undrained shear strength of sediments in the top 10- to 15-cm layer. 相似文献
18.
An Improved Calibration of Satellite Altimetric Heights Using Tide Gauge Sea Levels with Adjustment for Land Motion 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Gary T. Mitchum 《Marine Geodesy》2000,23(3):145-166
Several major improvements to an existing method for calibrating satellite altimeters using tide gauge data are described. The calibration is in the sense of monitoring and correcting temporal drift in the altimetric time series, which is essential in efforts to use the altimetric data for especially demanding applications. Examples include the determination of the rate of change of global mean sea level and the study of the relatively subtle, but climatically important, decadal variations in basin scale sea levels. The improvements are to the method described by Mitchum (1998a), and the modifications are of two basic types. First, since the method depends on the cancellation of true ocean signals by differencing the altimetric data from the tide gauge sea level time series, improvements are made that produce a more complete removal of the ocean signals that comprise the noise for the altimetric drift estimation problem. Second, a major error source in the tide gauge data, namely land motion, is explicitly addressed and corrections are developed that incorporate space-based geodetic data (continuous GPS and DORIS measurements). The long-term solution, having such geodetic measurements available at all the tide gauges, is not yet a reality, so an interim solution is developed. The improved method is applied to the TOPEX altimetric data. The Side A data (August 1992?February 1999) are found to have a linear drift component of 0.55 + / 0.39 mm/yr, but there is also a significant quadratic component to the drift that is presently unexplained. The TOPEX Side B altimeter is estimated to be biased by 7.0 + / 0.7 mm relative to the Side A altimeter based on an analysis of the first 350 days of Side B data. 相似文献
19.
Extreme sea levels associated with severe cyclonic storms are common occurrences along the east coast of India. The coastal districts of Orissa have experienced major surges in the past. The recent Paradip super cyclone is one of the most severe cyclones, causing extensive damage to property and loss of lives. Extreme sea levels are major causes for coastal flooding in this region. Damages can be minimized if the extreme sea levels are forecast well in advance. In the present study, we develop a location specific, fine resolution model for the Orissa coast on the lines similar to that of IIT-D storm surge model (Dube et al. 1994). The model runs on a personal computer. The bathymetry for the model is extracted from very fine resolution naval hydrographic charts for the region extending from the south of Orissa to south of West Bengal. A simple drying scheme has also been included in the model in order to avoid the exposure of land near the coast due to strong negative sea surface elevations. An attempt was made in this study to simulate extreme sea levels along the Orissa coast using the data of past severe cyclones. The model results reported in the present study are in good agreement with available observations or estimates. 相似文献
20.
The continental margin of northern Sinai and Israel, up to Haifa Bay, is the northeastern limb of the submarine Nile Delta Cone. It is made up predominantly of clastics from the Nile and its predecessors. The continental shelf and coastal plain of Israel are built of a series of shore-parallel ridges composed of carbonate-cemented quartz sandstone (locally named kurkar), a lithification product of windblown sands that were piled up into dunes during the Pleistocene. The drop in global sea level and regression during the last glacial period exposed the continental shelf to subaerial erosion and created a widespread regional erosional unconformity which is expressed as a prominent seismic reflector at the top of the kurkar layers. The subsequent Holocene transgression abraded much of the westernmost kurkar ridges, drowned their cores, and covered the previous lowstand deposits with marine sands, which were in turn covered by a sequence of sub-Recent clayey silts. The Mediterranean coasts of Sinai and Israel are part of the Nile littoral cell. Since the building of the Aswan dams the sand supplied to Israel's coastal system is derived mainly from erosion of the Nile Delta and from sands offshore Egypt that are stirred up by storm waves. The sands are transported by longshore and offshore currents along the coasts of northern Sinai and Israel. Their volume gradually declines northward with distance from their Nile source. The longshore transport terminates in Haifa Bay where some sand is trapped, and the test escapes to deeper water by bottom currents and through submarine canyons, thus denying Nile-derived sand supply to the 40-km-long 'Akko-Rosh Haniqra shelf. The sand balance along Israel's coastal zone is a product of natural processes and human intervention. Losses due to the outgoing longshore transport, seaward escape, and landward wind transport exceed the natural gains from the incoming longshore transport and the abrasion of the coastal cliffs. The deficit is aggravated by the construction of (1) seaward-projecting structures that trap sands on the upstream side and (2) offshore detached breakwaters that trap sands between themselves and the coast. The negative sand balance is manifested by the removal of sand from the seabed and the consequent exposure of archaeological remains that were hitherto protected by it. The sediments that escape seaward from the longshore transport system form a 2.5- to 4-km-wide sandy apron adjacent to the shore that extends to where the water is 30 - 40 m deep. The apron's slope (0.5 - 0.8) is steeper than the theoretical equilibrium slope for the median grain-size diameter in this zone (0.1 - 0.3 mm). The beach sands and the apron's surficial sands are well sorted. Their grain size decreases with distance from shore, from 0.2 - 0.3 mm nearshore to 0.11 - 0.16 mm by the drowned ridge. The coarse-grained fraction consists of skeletal debris (commonly 5 - 12% carbonate matter) and wave-milled kurkar grains (locally named zifzif). In deeper water, the basal sands underlying the fine-grained sediment cover consist of 1- to 30-cm layers whose composition ranges from silty sands to various types of sands (fine, medium, coarse, and gravelly) to zifzif. For the most part, they contain large amounts of skeletal debris (20 - 60%) and small fragments of kurkar. Two types of kurkar rock were encountered offshore: a well-sorted, fine- to medium-grained (0.074 - 0.300 mm) lithified dune sand with variable amounts of carbonate cement, ranging from hard rock of low permeability to loose sand; and a porous sandstone made up predominantly of algal grains and skeletal debris (calcarenite). 相似文献