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1.
Morishita's “multiple analysis” of the whaling issue [Morishita J. Multiple analysis of the whaling issue: Understanding the dispute by a matrix. Marine Policy 2006;30:802–8] is essentially a restatement of the Government of Japan's whaling policy, which confuses the issue through selective use of data, unsubstantiated facts, and the vilification of opposing perspectives. Here, we deconstruct the major problems with Morishita's article and provide an alternative view of the whaling dispute. For many people in this debate, the issue is not that some whales are not abundant, but that the whaling industry cannot be trusted to regulate itself or to honestly assess the status of potentially exploitable populations. This suspicion has its origin in Japan's poor use of science, its often implausible stock assessments, its insistence that culling is an appropriate way to manage marine mammal populations, and its relatively recent falsification of whaling and fisheries catch data combined with a refusal to accept true transparency in catch and market monitoring. Japanese policy on whaling cannot be viewed in isolation, but is part of a larger framework involving a perceived right to secure unlimited access to global marine resources. Whaling is inextricably tied to the international fisheries agreements on which Japan is strongly dependent; thus, concessions made at the IWC would have potentially serious ramifications in other fora.  相似文献   

2.
Since 1987, Japan has conducted extensive special permit whaling (“scientific whaling”) in the Antarctic and North Pacific. This has been viewed by many as a way to circumvent the International Whaling Commission׳s (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling, which was implemented in 1985. Recently, Australia took Japan to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) over this issue. Using various criteria, the Court ruled that Japan׳s whaling was not “for purposes of scientific research” as required by Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and ordered Japan to immediately cease its JARPA II whaling program in the Antarctic. Despite optimism that the Court׳s ruling might spell the end of Japanese whaling in the Antarctic and even elsewhere, Japan has indicated that it will redesign its whaling programs and continue operations. Based upon Japan׳s history at the IWC, I argue here that this was an expected outcome; I predict the course of events over the next months, and suggest that the ICJ ruling, while satisfying as an independent vindication of Japan׳s critics, represents little more than a temporary setback for that nation׳s whaling enterprise.  相似文献   

3.
As the International Whaling Commission has failed to establish a consensus on the interpretation and enforcement of a moratorium on commercial whaling, the disagreement between Australia and Japan over whaling has recently escalated. Australia, a leading opponent of whaling, questioned Japan's scientific whaling program in the Antarctic at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ ruled in 2014 that the Japanese whaling program is unscientific, but Japan revised the program and implemented it after the court ruling. To overcome the current international stalemate regarding whaling, this paper examines the possibility of a bargaining solution to this conflict, particularly through voluntary monetary compensation from Australia to Japan to halt whaling activities. The results of nationwide surveys indicate that Australia's total willingness to pay for the discontinuation of whaling by Japan is significantly greater than Japan's willingness to accept to abandon whaling in the high seas despite a substantial population difference between the two countries. The results suggest that a financial transfer could be a win-win strategy to resolve this long-standing international conflict.  相似文献   

4.
Video taken by Greenpeace of whaling by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean provided a unique opportunity to obtain quantitative data relevant to the welfare aspects of the killing of whales. Catches of 16 individual Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) were analysed and in two of these asphyxiation appeared the most likely cause of death. Fewer than one in five whales were killed instantaneously and the average time to death for the remaining whales was around 10 min. The presence of Greenpeace did not result in a reduced accuracy of harpoon shots when compared with previous studies.  相似文献   

5.
The Japanese government is committed to resuming sustainable commercial whaling, both on the high seas and along the Japanese coastline. To this end scientific whaling programs are supported with public money and the byproducts of the catch are distributed to the public and utilized in a variety of ways. Here we review the policies which govern how these byproducts are disseminated within Japan, as well as how the population as a whole makes use of whale resources. Possibilities for the future, if and when the international moratorium on commercial whaling ends, are also discussed.  相似文献   

6.
Until recently, successive Japanese and Australian governments have contained disputes over whaling within the International Whaling Commission. Domestic political circumstances and the national interest imperatives of the Japan–Australia relationship clearly have played an important role in shaping Australia's anti-whaling policy from its inception, and Australian policy makers traditionally have sought to balance both sets of interests in the implementation of this bi-partisan policy position. But in 2010 the Australian government launched international legal action against one its oldest and most important regional partners and allies, thereby abandoning the long-held “agree to disagree” approach between Australia and Japan to managing the whaling issue within the broader bi-lateral relationship. This paper explains this dramatic shift by characterising whaling policy in Australia as a two level game in which the then Kevin Rudd-led Labor government exploited the strong and stable nature of Australia's bi-lateral relations with Japan to manage several important electoral and political challenges it faced domestically.  相似文献   

7.
Whale watching is now reputed to be a $2 billion a year industry. This industry has the potential to impact the politics of whaling, specifically the moratorium on all commercial whaling in three ways: by creating political and economic counterweights to whalers, by countering claims about who may legitimately manage whales and to what end and by transforming views about whales and whaling both within whaling states and beyond. This article examines whale watching in Latin America and the Caribbean and the alliance of Latin American and Caribbean members of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) known as the Buenos Aires Group (BAG). The BAG group has emerged as coherent group opposing the ending of the moratorium and championing the views of whale watchers. The article finds that whale watching creates a politically important interest group in an area lacking whaling operations; it argues that these regional opponents of whaling provide a counter weight to charges that opposition to whaling is exclusively the providence of rich, urban citizens of developed countries and draw upon politically powerful frames in justifying their opposition to the lifting of the moratorium. Finally, it finds limited evidence that whale-watching is associated with a rise in general concern for marine mammals in the region. There remains the question, however, of what the future of whale watching in the region will be over the longer term.  相似文献   

8.
The interest of the general public, especially young people, in ocean and coastal issues is crucial, and yet high school students often do not consider scientific careers to be attractive. Raising student awareness of careers in marine science is not only a task for educators, but for scientists engaged in marine research as well. This paper summarises the experience of three years of international science camp organized for 15–19 year old students from countries of the Baltic Sea region (Europe) and discusses international science camps as a platform for encouraging interest in marine science.  相似文献   

9.
Scientific whaling has polarized opinion for decades, and its scientific value has been intensely debated. Here, the output of scientific whaling programs is examined by comparing it to the scientific output pertaining to whales of countries that do not practice scientific whaling. Between 1986 and 2013, whaling and non-whaling countries produced, on average, similar total numbers of publications that were directly relevant to the goals of the scientific whaling permits issued by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), and similar numbers of papers that were relevant to whale ecology and conservation but not directly related to IWC goals. Half of the scientific productivity of scientific whaling countries resulted from non-lethal data collection. One-third of publications by whaling countries were published in peer-reviewed outlets, compared to twice as many for non-whaling countries. Publications by whaling countries were cited ~4 times less often than those of non-whaling countries, with no evidence of citation discrimination against whaling countries since the citation rates of papers that did and did not use lethal sampling were similar. These academic criteria suggest that although the overall volume of science produced by scientific whaling countries is similar to that of non-whaling countries, the quality of the science is not. Arguably, academic criteria are not the best way to assess the usefulness of science for management and conservation, but demonstrating links between the science produced by scientific whaling, its integration in management plans and actions, and shifts towards sustainable exploitation or recovery of whale populations is challenging.  相似文献   

10.
Commercial whaling is highly contentious, angering animal rights groups and conservation organizations, who threaten boycotts. Proponents of whaling argue that many whale stocks are plentiful enough to support sustainable harvests. In terms of economic efficiency, a nation's decision to engage in whaling depends on rents from the whaling industry, ecological and market linkages, and the potential for boycotts. We analyze the tradeoffs involved in a nation's decision to engage in whaling, whale-watching, and fishing. Scenarios exist in which whaling is economically rational. Indeed, sometimes it makes economic sense to subsidize whaling. In other circumstances, market pressures make commercial whaling inefficient.  相似文献   

11.
Sighting and catch data on sperm whales accumulated during a whale survey by the New Zealand Marine Department and whaling operations by the Tory Channel whaling company in 1963–4 were examined.

The results showed a unimodal rise and fall in numbers of sperm whales in the Cook Strait region throughout the year. From a peak between December and April whale numbers declined steadily until November, when they rose again sharply.

It is suggested from these results that the best choice for an eight‐month sperm whaling season would be one extending from November to July.

It was concluded that the mean speed of sperm whales in the area was not likely to exceed 1 knot.  相似文献   

12.
Joji Morishita   《Marine Policy》2006,30(6):802-808
The contentious whaling dispute can be described as a scientific dispute over resource management, the collision between nations that regard whales as food and nations that see whales as special, political game played by politicians who like to be seen as environmentally conscious by opposing whaling, and economic interests of the whaling industry and fundraising anti-whaling organizations. All of these different interpretations are correct, however, none, by themselves, can explain the whole picture of the controversy. This paper, by constructing a matrix, presents a comprehensive picture of this complex dispute and some options for making a progress.  相似文献   

13.
The sequential megafaunal collapse hypothesis: Testing with existing data   总被引：4，自引：1，他引：4  
Springer et al. [Springer, A.M., Estes, J.A., van Vliet, G.B., Williams, T.M., Doak, D.F., Danner, E.M., Forney, K.A., Pfister, B., 2003. Sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific Ocean: an ongoing legacy of industrial whaling? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (21), 12,223–12,228] hypothesized that great whales were an important prey resource for killer whales, and that the removal of fin and sperm whales by commercial whaling in the region of the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands (BSAI) in the late 1960s and 1970s led to cascading trophic interactions that caused the sequential decline of populations of harbor seal, northern fur seal, Steller sea lion and northern sea otter. This hypothesis, referred to as the Sequential Megafaunal Collapse (SMC), has stirred considerable interest because of its implication for ecosystem-based management. The SMC has the following assumptions: (1) fin whales and sperm whales were important as prey species in the Bering Sea; (2) the biomass of all large whale species (i.e., North Pacific right, fin, humpback, gray, sperm, minke and bowhead whales) was in decline in the Bering Sea in the 1960s and early 1970s; and (3) pinniped declines in the 1970s and 1980s were sequential. We concluded that the available data are not consistent with the first two assumptions of the SMC. Statistical tests of the timing of the declines do not support the assumption that pinniped declines were sequential. We propose two alternative hypotheses for the declines that are more consistent with the available data. While it is plausible, from energetic arguments, for predation by killer whales to have been an important factor in the declines of one or more of the three populations of pinnipeds and the sea otter population in the BSAI region over the last 30 years, we hypothesize that the declines in pinniped populations in the BSAI can best be understood by invoking a multiple factor hypothesis that includes both bottom–up forcing (as indicated by evidence of nutritional stress in the western Steller sea lion population) and top–down forcing (e.g., predation by killer whales, mortality incidental to commercial fishing, directed harvests). Our second hypothesis is a modification of the top–down forcing mechanism (i.e., killer whale predation on one or more of the pinniped populations and the sea otter population is mediated via the recovery of the eastern North Pacific population of the gray whale). We remain skeptical about the proposed link between commercial whaling on fin and sperm whales, which ended in the mid-1960s, and the observed decline of populations of northern fur seal, harbor seal, and Steller sea lion some 15 years later.  相似文献   

14.
Southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) were widespread in New Zealand waters before commercial whaling in the nineteenth century caused drastic declines in their abundance and distribution. Following the cessation of whaling, the population has been recovering and is now slowly recolonising its former range. Estimates of population demographics, including reproductive output, are essential for predicting the trajectory of this population. We gathered photo-identification data on female southern right whales during annual field trips to the Auckland Islands, the principal calving area in New Zealand waters. Forty-five calving intervals were observed between 2006 and 2013 (mean interval?=?3.31 years, 95% CI?=?3.06–3.57). Incorporating the effects of possible missed calving events produced a plausible range of mean calving intervals from 3.17 to 3.31 years. Our results suggest that the calving interval of New Zealand southern right whales is similar to that found in populations elsewhere.  相似文献   

15.
“Satoumi” is a Japanese term meaning a seascape where human-ecosystem interaction has resulted in increased biodiversity and productivity, thus improving the health of the environment and its ecosystem services. However, this definition does not do justice to the universality of the concept, and the holistic ideas and related valuable practices promoted by the term, applicable to fisheries science, contributing thus to the neglect of the term in the international stage. This article explores the importance of environmental, commercial, and research activities related to Satoumi, based on actions implemented by Fisheries Cooperative Associations (FCAs) of different prefectures in Japan. The examined case studies are bottom-up initiatives undertaken by Japanese fishermen and constitute effective means towards sustainable and competitive fisheries management. Such initiatives play an important role in disseminating the positive effects of the Satoumi approach in Japan, and promote therefore its adoption in other regions of the world as well.  相似文献   

16.
Environmental problems are becoming increasingly unwieldy, particularly those which are highly debated because of their political and financial consequences and have been termed as in “crisis”. In coral reef environments, these considerations spill into decisions on mitigation of reef decline and attendant questions of territorial and resource-access rights. Historical foundations of reef science show that early applications of reef inquiries centered on environmental connection and inevitably led to establishing not only the baseline of reef ecosystems, but also contributed to the evolution of conservation crisis in this environment. This work applies Q-methodology towards determining attitudes, prioritizing statements and finding consensus regarding management issues that are tied to the science of coral reef environments and their conservation “crisis”. This work delineates the social construction of attitudes, perceptions, and foundations of coral conservation science by examining the scientifically-grounded statements that constitute conservation debates. Study participants were comprised of the coral reef science and conservation professional network. The Q-sample (n = 43) was structured around some central debates over the dilemmas and strategies of reef management and decline-mitigation, both recent and long-running. Four attitudes or viewpoints were isolated in terms of their preferred management models, geographic perspectives and the role scientific findings play within these core beliefs. These can be generally described as Community and Locally-centered Humanists, Scientific Idealists, Skeptical and Utilitarian Pragmatists, and Politically-oriented Positivists. Evaluating agreement about central issues showed a high degree of consensus regarding the relative importance of community input in the role of successful reef management while the highest degree of contention was seen in scalar issues such as human-environment feedback systems that are inherent in solving environmental crises.  相似文献   

17.
Several studies have provided evidence of a reduction of the Antarctic sea ice extent. However, these studies were conducted either at a global scale or at a regional scale, and possible inter-regional differences were not analysed. Using the long-term whaling database we investigated circum-Antarctic changes in summer sea ice extent from 1931 to 1987. Accounting for bias inherent in the whaling method, this analysis provides new insight into the historical ice edge reconstruction and inter-regional differences. We highlight a reduction of the sea ice extent occurring in the 1960s, mainly in the Weddell sector where the change ranged from 3° to 7.9° latitude through summer. Although the whaling method may not be appropriate for detecting fine-scale change, these results provide evidence for a heterogeneous circumpolar change of the sea ice extent. The shift is temporally and spatially consistent with other environmental changes detected in the Weddell sector and also with a shift in the Southern Hemisphere annular mode. The large reduction of the sea ice extent has probably influenced the ecosystem of the Weddell Sea, particularly the krill biomass.  相似文献   

18.
Daily charts of the aerial search effort (432 206 nautical miles) of the Union Whaling Company and 1 099 sightings of 10 497 whales were available from 628 flights off Durban between 1972 and 1975. Densities of whales were analysed by month and water depth distribution over the four-year period. Low observed densities of blue Balaenoptera musculus, right Eubalaena australis, sei B. borealis and humpback Megaptera novaeangliae whales most likely resulted from earlier whaling pressure. Seasonality of blue, sei and humpback whales was bimodal, indicative of winter migrations to the north of the Durban whaling grounds, whereas the unimodal seasonality of fin whales B. physalus and minke whales B. bonaerensis or B. acutorostrata suggest the offshore region as the northern terminus of their migrations. Sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus migrate northwards offshore of the KwaZulu-Natal coast in autumn/early winter and southwards in late winter/spring, with larger males migrating later than the smaller males and females. Killer whale Orcinus orca presence was coincident with that of offshore minke whales and the southward migrations of other baleen whales, whereas densities of animals deemed as bottlenose whale Hyperoodon planifrons suggest strong early and late summer seasonal abundance in the offshore region. Such extensive surveys offshore of the KwaZulu-Natal coast are unlikely to be repeated; hence, data-extraction of whaling records provides a valuable source of seasonal and distributional information for marine management.  相似文献   

19.
Following the introduction of sea-going factory vessels by Norwegian whalers in the 1926 season, the international whaling industry underwent a large expansion which ultimately resulted in depletion of many valuable stocks of whales. Attempts at conservation under the auspices of the International Whaling Commission met with limited but growing success, until a new management policy was adopted in 1975. By 1980 the killing of most species of baleen whales had been prohibited. The authors review the economic history of pelagic whaling during this period, and present a corresponding economic analysis. A brief survey of mathematical models of the whaling industry is given in the Appendix.  相似文献   

20.
Large whales were extensively hunted in coastal waters off Alaska, but current distribution, population sizes and trends are poorly known. Line transect surveys were conducted in coastal waters of the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula in the summer of 2001–2003. Abundances of three species were estimated by conventional and multiple covariate distance sampling (MCDS) methods. Time series of abundance estimates were used to derive rates of increase for fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). Fin whales occurred primarily from the Kenai Peninsula to the Shumagin Islands, but were abundant only near the Semidi Islands and Kodiak. Humpback whales were found from the Kenai Peninsula to Umnak Island and were more abundant near Kodiak, the Shumagin Islands and north of Unimak Pass. Minke whales (B. acutorostrata) occurred primarily in the Aleutian Islands, with a few sightings south of the Alaska Peninsula and near Kodiak Island. Humpback whales were observed in large numbers in their former whaling grounds. In contrast, high densities of fin whales were not observed around the eastern Aleutian Islands, where whaling occurred. Average abundance estimates (95% CI) for fin, humpback and minke whales were 1652 (1142–2389), 2644 (1899–3680), and 1233 (656–2315), respectively. Annual rates of increase were estimated at 4.8% (95% CI=4.1–5.4%) for fin and 6.6% (5.2–8.6%) for humpback whales. This study provides the first estimate of the rate of increase of fin whales in the North Pacific Ocean. The estimated trends are consistent with those of other recovering baleen whales. There were no sightings of blue or North Pacific right whales, indicating the continued depleted status of these species.  相似文献   

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