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1.
We discuss the propagation of spectral line and continuum radiation in a clumpy medium and give general expressions for the observed absorption or emission from a cloud population. We show that the affect of the medium clumpiness can usually be characterised by a single number multiplying the mean column opacity. Our result provides a simpler proof and generalization of the result of Martin et al. (1984). The formalism provides a simple way to understand the effects of clumping on molecular line profiles and ratios; for example, how clumping effects the interpretation of 13CO(1–0) to 12CO(1–0) line ratios. It also can be used as a propagation operator in physical models of clumpy media where the incident radiation effects the spectral line emissivity. We are working to extend the formalism to the propagation of masers in a clumpy medium, but in this case, there are special difficulties because formal expectation values are not characteristic of observations because they are biased by rare events.  相似文献   

2.
We present a study of radiative transfer in dusty, clumpy star-forming regions. A series of self-consistent, 3D, continuum radiative transfer models are constructed for a grid of models parametrized by central luminosity, filling factor, clump radius and face-averaged optical depth. The temperature distribution within the clouds is studied as a function of this parametrization. Among our results, we find that: (i) the effective optical depth in clumpy regions is less than in equivalent homogeneous regions of the same average optical depth, leading to a deeper penetration of heating radiation in clumpy clouds, and temperatures higher by over 60 per cent; (ii) penetration of radiation is driven by the fraction of open sky (FOS) – which is a measure of the fraction of solid angle along which no clumps exist; (iii) FOS increases as clump radius increases and as filling factor decreases; (iv) for values of   FOS >0.6–0.8  the sky is sufficiently 'open' that the temperature distribution is relatively insensitive to FOS; (v) the physical process by which radiation penetrates is preferentially through streaming of radiation between clumps as opposed to diffusion through clumps; (vi) filling factor always dominates the determination of the temperature distribution for large optical depths, and for small clump radii at smaller optical depths; (vii) at lower face-averaged optical depths, the temperature distribution is most sensitive to filling factors of 1–10 per cent, in accordance with many observations; (viii) direct shadowing by clumps can be important for distances approximately one clump radius behind a clump.  相似文献   

3.
We present Monte Carlo radiative-transfer simulations for spiral galaxies modelled as a stellar disc and a two-phase clumpy dust distribution. We divide the volume occupied by the dust into a three-dimensional grid and assign each cell a clump or smooth medium status. Cell dimension, clump dust mass and spatial distribution are derived from the observed properties of giant molecular clouds and molecular gas in the Galaxy. We produce models for several values of the optical depth and fraction of the interstellar medium residing in clumps. As a general result, clumpy models are less opaque than the corresponding homogeneous models. For the adopted parameters, the increase in the fraction of energy that escapes the disc is moderate, resulting in surface-brightness profiles that are less than one magnitude brighter than those of the homogeneous models. The effects of clumping are larger for edge-on views of the disc. This is in contrast with previous preliminary results for clumping in the literature. We show how differences arise from the different parametrization and clump distribution adopted. We also consider models in which a fraction of the stellar radiation is emitted within the clumps. In this case, galaxies are less transparent than in the case when only dust is clumped. The opacity can be even higher than in the homogeneous case, depending on the fraction of embedded stellar emission. We point out the implications of the results for the determination of the opacity and dust mass of spiral galaxies.  相似文献   

4.
通过N体数值模拟以不同粒子数对星系中巨分子云的形成的影响进行了研究。结果表明：在聚合形成机制下，当对不同数目的分子云取相同的平均密度时，基本分子云的有效半径与其相应质量的立方根成正比，巨分子云的碎裂率与模拟基本分子云的数目无关。  相似文献   

5.
Supernova (SN) explosions inject a considerable amount of energy into the interstellar medium (ISM) in regions with high-to-moderate star formation rates. In order to assess whether the driving of turbulence by supernovae is also important in the outer Galactic disc, where the star formation rates are lower, we study the spatial distribution of molecular cloud (MC) inclinations with respect to the Galactic plane. The latter contains important information on the nature of the mechanism of energy injection into the ISM. We analyse the spatial correlations between the position angles (PAs) of a selected sample of MCs (the largest clouds in the catalogue of the outer Galaxy published by Heyer et al). Our results show that when the PAs of the clouds are all mapped to values into the  [0°, 90°]  interval, there is a significant degree of spatial correlation between the PAs on spatial scales in the range of 100–800 pc. These scales are of the order of the sizes of individual SN shells in low-density environments such as those prevailing in the outer Galaxy and where the metallicity of the ambient gas is of the order of the solar value or smaller. These findings suggest that individual SN explosions, occurring in the outer regions of the Galaxy and in likewise spiral galaxies, albeit at lower rates, continue to play an important role in shaping the structure and dynamics of the ISM in those regions. The SN explosions we postulate here are likely associated with the existence of young stellar clusters in the far outer regions of the Galaxy and the ultraviolet emission and low levels of star formation observed with the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) satellite in the outer regions of local galaxies.  相似文献   

6.
Molecular clouds are clumpy on length scales down to the limits of observational resolution. At least some ultracompactHii regions (UCHiiR) may result from the interaction of a young early type star and this type of cloud. The clumps can act as reservoirs of ionized gas distributed within theHii region. These models reproduce the relatively long lifetimes implied by the population statistics of UCHiiR. We present line profile and emission measure plots based on the simplest case where the flow remains supersonic through to a recombination front. The morphology agrees with the shell-like UCHiiR as classified by Churchwell. The predicted line profiles are broad and double peaked with a separation of about 50 km s–1 for the example given.  相似文献   

7.
To interpret the millimeter and sub-millimeter line emissions of atomic and molecular species from galactic and extragalactic photodissociation regions, warm gas components and molecular clouds, generally, escape probability formalism of Tielens & Hollenbach (herein referred as TH) are employed which is based on the assumption of plane parallel geometry of infinite slab allowing photons to escape only from the front. Contrary to the assumption observationally it is found that these lines are optically thin except OI(63μ m) and low rotational transitions of CO and some other molecules. This observational evidence led us to assume that emitting regions are finite parallel plane slab in which photons are allowed to escape from both the surfaces (back and front). Therefore, in the present study escape of radiations from both sides of the homogeneous and also clumpy PDR/molecular clouds are taken into consideration for calculating the line intensities at millimeter and sub-millimeter wavelengths (hereinafter referred as QA). Results are compared with that of the TH model. It is found that thermal and chemical structures of the regions are almost similar in both the formalisms. But line intensities are modified by differing factors. Particularly at low density and low kinetic temperature and also for optically thin lines line intensities calculated from TH and QA model differ substantially. But at density higher than the critical density and also for optically thick lines TH and QA models converge to almost same values. An attempt has been made to study the physical conditions of the M17 region employing the present formalism.  相似文献   

8.
Using Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera daily global maps, cloud areas have been measured daily for water ice clouds associated with the topography of the major volcanoes Olympus Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons, Arsia Mons, Elysium Mons, and Alba Patera. This study expands on that of Benson et al. [Benson, J.L., Bonev, B.P., James, P.B., Shan, K.J., Cantor, B.A., Caplinger, M.A., 2003. Icarus 165, 34-52] by continuing their cloud area measurements of the Tharsis volcanoes, Olympus Mons and Alba Patera for an additional martian year (August 2001-May 2003) and by also including Elysium Mons measurements from March 1999 through May 2003. The seasonal trends in cloud activity established by Benson et al. [Benson, J.L., Bonev, B.P., James, P.B., Shan, K.J., Cantor, B.A., Caplinger, M.A., 2003. Icarus 165, 34-52] for the five volcanoes studied earlier are corroborated here with an additional year of coverage. For volcanoes other than Arsia Mons, interannual variations that could be associated with the large 2001 planet encircling dust storm are minimal. At Arsia Mons, where cloud activity was continuous in the first two years, clouds disappeared totally for ∼85° of LS (LS=188°-275°) due to the dust storm. Elysium Mons cloud activity is similar to that of Olympus Mons, however the peak in cloud area is near LS=130° rather than near LS=100°.  相似文献   

9.
Self-consistent multicomponent models of evolution of the interstellar medium have been computed by extending the scheme of Habeet al. (1981) and adding some processes of star formation in molecular clouds, induced by supersonic collisions. A monochromatic spectrum of the molecular clouds has been adopted with a cloud mass of 104 M . The consequences of these simplifying assumptions have been discussed and moreover the influence of several parameters (efficiency of star formation, photoionization rate, cloud radius, and mass) and of the initial conditions has been analyzed. Emphasis has been put on the following points: (1) there is a strong conditioning of the physical state of the intercloud gas on the star formation rate; (2) depending on the total initial mass of the molecular clouds per unit volume , two different regimes of star formation are possible: one, when is larger than a critical value cr, dominated by collisions between clouds, with a total star formation rate practically constant and a long lifetime for the system, the other, characterized by <cr, in which the dominant process is due to the expansion ofHii regions: the resulting star formation rate causes the system exhaustion in a relatively short lifetime. Some suggestions are derived concerning the evolution of galaxies.  相似文献   

10.
Current theoretical models for what drives star formation (especially low-mass star formation) are: (1) magnetic support of self-gravitating clouds with ambipolar diffusion removing support in cores and triggering collapse and (2) compressible turbulence forming self-gravitating clumps that collapse as soon as the turbulent cascade produces insufficient turbulent support. Observations of magnetic fields can distinguish between these two models because of different predictions in three areas: (1) magnetic field morphology, (2) the scaling of field strength with density and non-thermal velocities, and (3) the mass to magnetic flux ratio, M/Φ. We first discuss the techniques and limitations of methods for observing magnetic fields in star formation regions, then describe results for the L1544 prestellar core as an exemplar of the observational results. Application of the three tests leads to the following conclusions. The observational data show that both magnetic fields and turbulence are important in molecular cloud physics. Field lines are generally regular rather than chaotic, implying strong field strengths. But fields are not aligned with the minor axes of oblate spheroidal clouds, suggesting that turbulence is important. Field strengths appear to scale with non-thermal velocity widths, suggesting a significant turbulent support of clouds. Giant Molecular Clouds (GMCs) require mass accumulation over sufficiently large volumes that they would likely have an approximately critical M/Φ. Yet H I clouds are observed to be highly subcritical. If self-gravitating (molecular) clouds form with the subcritical M/Φ of H I clouds, the molecular clouds will be subcritical. However, the observations of molecular cloud cores suggest that they are approximately critical, with no direct evidence for subcritical molecular clouds or cloud envelopes. Hence, the observations remain inconclusive in deciding between the two extreme-case models of what drives star formation. What is needed to further advance our understanding of the role of magnetic fields in the star formation process are additional high sensitivity surveys of magnetic field strengths and other cloud properties in order to further refine the assessment of the importance of magnetic fields in molecular cores and envelopes.  相似文献   

11.
As a result of feedback from massive stars, via their intense winds and/or supernova explosions, massive star‐forming regions are entirely filled with hot, X‐ray emitting plasmas, which escape into the ambient ISM. As shown recently by Townsley et al. for several “extreme” cases (Carina, M17, NGC 3576, NGC 3603, 30 Dor), by way of large Chandra ACIS mosaics, extra, non‐thermal emission lines are present on top of the standard lines emitted by hot plasmas. Some of them are very close to lines characteristic of charge‐exchange reactions between the hot plasma and the cold surrounding material, suggesting that this mechanism operates on large spatial scales (several 10 pc) in star‐forming regions in general. The connection with starburst galaxies is briefly mentioned, and it is pointed out that supernovae interacting with molecular clouds may also provide a good environment to look for charge exchange processes (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)  相似文献   

12.
Planetary Nebulae have proven to be an essential key to understand the long term chemical enrichment of the interstellar medium due to low mass stars. They allow to study the original abundances of the star, and the effect of the star on the interstellar medium. Blue compact dwarf galaxies are known to host violent star formation in very heavy element depleted environments. They also show traces of past star formation (Doublier et al., 1999; 2001), including AGB starsand red giants which are responsible for long term enrichment. However, models fails to reproduce the low metallicities observed if those stars are taken into account. We observed PNe in BCDGs, and made a comparative study of the abundances in the HII regions and of the PNe. This revised version was published online in September 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

13.
Dissociation and ionization of hydrogen molecules and ionization of hydrogen atoms due to extreme UV radiation from the parent star are accompanied by the formation of a concurrent photoelectron flux with excess kinetic energy. These dissociation and ionization processes are the main source of atomic and molecular ions in the thermospheres of extrasolar planets, such as the “hot Jupiter” HD 209458b. The ionization processes are the most important part of contemporary aeronomic models of planetary atmospheres in the Solar System and extrasolar systems (Johnson et al., 2008; Yelle et al., 2008). We estimate the contribution of the dissociation and ionization processes due to the stellar UV radiation and the concurrent photoelectron flux to the formation of extended ionospheres around extrasolar giant planets. As opposed to models of other researchers, we calculated the ionization rates due to the concurrent photo-electron flux for the first time. It is established that, in contrast to a widely used parametrization of the photoelectron contribution (Cecchi-Pestellini et al., 2006; 2009), the rate of secondary ionization due to the photoelectrons depends appreciably on the altitude, approaching the photoionization rate in the lower layers of the thermosphere. The calculated ionization rate in the thermosphere of the extrasolar giant planet (EGP) orbiting close to its parent star is a necessary link when modeling an aeronomic model and estimating the rate of the EGP atmospheric loss.  相似文献   

14.
We present infrared spectroscopy of the Antennae galaxies (NGC 4038/9) with the near-infrared spectrometer (NIRSPEC) at the W. M. Keck Observatory. We imaged the star clusters in the vicinity of the southern nucleus (NGC 4039) with 0&farcs;39 seeing in the K band using NIRSPEC's slit-viewing camera. The brightest star cluster revealed in the near-IR [MK&parl0;0&parr0; approximately -17.9] is insignificant optically but is coincident with the highest surface brightness peak in the mid-IR (12-18 μm) Infrared Space Observatory image presented by Mirabel et al. We obtained high signal-to-noise ratio 2.03-2.45 μm spectra of the nucleus and the obscured star cluster at R approximately 1900. The cluster is very young ( approximately 4 Myr), massive (M approximately 16x106 M middle dot in circle), and compact (with a density of approximately 115 M middle dot in circle pc-3 within a 32 pc half-light radius), assuming a Salpeter initial mass function (0.1-100 M middle dot in circle). Its hot stars have a radiation field characterized by Teff approximately 39,000 K, and they ionize a compact H ii region with ne approximately 104 cm-3. The stars are deeply embedded in gas and dust (AV approximately 9-10 mag), and their strong far-ultraviolet field powers a clumpy photodissociation region with densities nH greater, similar105 cm-3 on scales of approximately 200 pc, radiating LH21-0S&parl0;1&parr0;=9600 L middle dot in circle.  相似文献   

15.
P.G.J. Irwin  N.A. Teanby 《Icarus》2009,203(1):287-302
Long-slit spectroscopy observations of Uranus by the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope UIST instrument in 2006, 2007 and 2008 have been used to monitor the change in Uranus’ vertical and latitudinal cloud structure through the planet’s northern spring equinox in December 2007.The observed reflectance spectra in the Long J (1.17-1.31 μm) and H (1.45-1.65 μm) bands, obtained with the slit aligned along Uranus’ central meridian, have been fitted with an optimal estimation retrieval model to determine the vertical cloud profile from 0.1 to 6-8 bar over a wide range of latitudes. Context images in a number of spectral bands were used to discriminate general zonal cloud structural changes from passing discrete clouds. From 2006 to 2007 reflection from deep clouds at pressures between 2 and 6-8 bar increased at all latitudes, although there is some systematic uncertainty in the absolute pressure levels resulting from extrapolating the methane coefficients of Irwin et al. (Irwin, P.G.J., Sromovsky, L.A., Strong, E.K., Sihra, K., Teanby, N.A., Bowles, N., Calcutt, S.B., Remedios, J.J. [2006] Icarus, 181, 309-319) at pressures greater than 1 bar, as noted by Tomasko et al. and Karkoschka and Tomasko (Tomasko, M.G., Bezard, B., Doose, L., Engel, S., Karkoschka, E. [2008] Planet. Space Sci., 56, 624-647; Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2009] Icarus). However, from 2007 to 2008 reflection from these clouds throughout the southern hemisphere and from both northern and southern mid-latitudes (30° N,S) diminished. As a result, the southern polar collar at 45°S has diminished in brightness relative to mid-latitudes, a similar collar at 45°N has become more prominent (e.g. Rages, K.A., Hammel, H.B., Sromovsky, L. [2007] Bull. Am. Astron. Soc., 39, 425; Sromovsky, L.A., Fry, P.M., Ahue, W.M., Hammel, H.B., de Pater, I., Rages, K.A., Showalter, M.R., van Dam, M.A. [2008] vol. 40 of AAS/Division for Planetary Sciences Meeting Abstracts, pp. 488-489; Sromovsky, L.A., Ahue, W.K.M., Fry, P.M., Hammel, H.B., de Pater, I., Rages, K.A., Showalter, M.R. [2009] Icarus), and the lowering reflectivity from mid-latitudes has left a noticeable brighter cloud zone at the equator (e.g. Sromovsky, L.A., Fry, P.M. [2007] Icarus, 192, 527-557;Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2009] Icarus). For such substantial cloud changes to have occurred in just two years suggests that the circulation of Uranus’ atmosphere is much more vigorous and/or efficient than is commonly thought. The composition of the main observed cloud decks between 2 and 6-8 bar is unclear, but the absence of the expected methane cloud at 1.2-1.3 bar (Lindal, G.F., Lyons, J.R., Sweetnam, D.N., Eshleman, V.R., Hinson, D.P. [1987] J. Geophys. Res., 92, 14987-15001) is striking (as previously noted by, among others, Sromovsky, L.A., Irwin, P.G.J., Fry, P.M. [2006] Icarus, 182, 577-593; Sromovsky, L.A., Fry, P.M. [2007] Icarus, 192, 527-557; Sromovsky, L.A., Fry, P.M. [2008] Icarus, 193, 252-266; Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2009] Icarus) and suggests that cloud particles may be considerably different from pure condensates and may be linked with stratospheric haze particles drizzling down from above, or that tropospheric hazes are generated near the methane condensation level and then drizzle down to deep pressures as suggested by Karkoschka and Tomasko (Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2009] Icarus).The retrieved cloud structures were also tested for different assumptions of the deep methane mole fraction, which Karkoschka and Tomasko (Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2009] Icarus) find may vary from ∼1-2% in polar regions to perhaps as much as 4% equatorwards of 45°N,S. We found that such variations did not significantly affect our conclusions.  相似文献   

16.
Mid-and far-infrared maps of many Galactic star forming regions show multiple peaks in close proximity, implying more than one embedded energy source. With the aim of understanding such interstellar clouds better, the present study models the case of two embedded sources. A radiative transfer scheme has been developed to deal with a uniform density dust cloud in a cylindrical geometry, which includes isotropic scattering in addition to the emission and absorption processes. This scheme has been applied to the Galactic star forming region associated with IRAS 19181 + 1349, which shows observational evidence for two embedded energy sources. Two independent modelling approaches have been adopted, viz., to fit the observed spectral energy distribution (SED) best; or to fit the various radial profiles best, as a function of wavelength. Both the models imply remarkably similar physical parameters.  相似文献   

17.
We discuss the rotation of interstellar clouds which are in a stage immediately before star formation. Cloud collisions seem to be the principal cause of the observed rotation of interstellar clouds. The rotational motion of the clouds is strongly influenced by turbulence.Theories dealing with the resolution of the angular momentum problem in star formation are classified into five major groups. We develop the old idea that the angular momentum of an interstellar cloud passes during star formation into the angular momentum of double star systems and/or circumstellar clouds.It is suggested that a rotating gas cloud contracts into a ring-like structure which fragments into self-gravitating subcondensations. By collisions and gas accretion these subcondensations accrete into binary systems surrounded by circumstellar clouds. Using some rough approximations we find analytical expressions for the semi-major axis of the binary system and for the density of the circumstellar clouds as a function of the initial density and of the initial angular velocity of an interstellar cloud. The obtained values are well within the observational limits.  相似文献   

18.
In this article, some aspects of the clumpy nature of molecular clouds are reviewed. In particular the observational evidence for small-scale structures both in low and high mass star forming regions will be discussed. I will review some examples of `clumpiness' such as: i) the molecular clumps ahead of HH objects and how the study of the physical and chemical nature of these clumps is important for the understanding of the clumpiness of the Interstellar Medium; and ii)hot cores and their use as a tool to study the early phases of massive star formation. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

19.
富坚 《天文学进展》2011,(4):473-476
星际气体是星系中重子物质的重要组成部分,其中的分子气体（主要是分子氢H2）以及原子气体（主要是中性氢HI）对于星系中发生的各个物理过程至关重要。本文在前人的星系形成和演化的半解析模型基础上,加入了描述星系盘中分子气体和原子气体成分的物理模型,来研究分子气体和原子气体对于星系形成和演化所起的作用。我们主要使用了马普天体物理所Munich Group的L-Galaxies半解析星系形成模型,并借鉴了星系化学演化模型的方法,把半解析模型中的每一个星系盘分成了多个同心圆圈,然后在每个圈中分别追踪气体下落、分子气体和原子气体转化、恒星形成、金属增丰、超新星爆发加热冷气体等发生在星系盘上的物理过程,并且每个同心圈都是独立演化的。在我们的模型中,一个基本假设是每个时间步内气体都是以指数形式下落到星系盘上,并且直接叠加在已有的气体径向面密度轮廓之上,其中指数盘的标长rd正比于星系所在暗物质晕的维里半径rvir与旋转参量λ的乘积。我们的模型使用了两种描述分子气体形成的模型:一种是基于Krumholz等人解析模型的结果,其中分子气体的比例与局域气体面密度以及局域气体金属丰度相关;另一种是分子气体比例与星际压强相关的模型,根据Obreschkow等人的近似,分子气体的比例与气体面密度以及恒星质量面密度相关。由于恒星形成过程发生在星际巨分子云之中,并且根据Leroy等人的观测结果,恒星形成率面密度近似正比于分子气体的面密度,因此我们在模型中使用了与分子气体面密度相关的恒星形成规律。  相似文献   

20.
The very large brightness decrease of late-type Herbig Ae/Be stars is believed to be caused by obscuring dust clouds orbiting in the outer parts of their circumstellar disks. The distances of the dust clouds to the central stars have been estimated using the wavelength at maximum flux of the excess near-IR radiation, Wien's displacement law, and a formula derived by Rowan-Robinson (1980). The critical masses of these clouds were calculated employing Chandrasekhar's (1943) formula. The minimum size of the dust grains in the obscuring clouds was estimated using Aumannet al.'s (1984) formula they had applied to the star Lyr. However, it can be about ten times smaller if the dust grains are situated at the back of the cloud. The average size of these grains has been determined by assuming a size distribution similar to that in the asteroidal belt (Dohnanyi, 1969) and in the interstellar medium (Mathiset al., 1977). Their number density was determined by means of the extinction power of the dust cloud at theV pass-band. The results of our calculations show that above parameters are similar to those in our solar system. Therefore, we believe that most probably (a) the formation of planetesimals in the circumstellar disks of Herbig Ae/Be stars is on-going; and (b) the obscuring clouds will, in the long run, become planet-like objects.Paper presented at the Conference onPlanetary Systems: Formation, Evolution, and Detection held 7–10 December, 1992 at CalTech, Pasadena, California, U.S.A.  相似文献   

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