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91.
We assessed the reproducibility of river state-of-environment (SoE) water quality measurements in the Wellington Region, New Zealand (NZ). Field staff from GWRC and NIWA conducted 29 side-by-side water sampling and in-situ measurements at six river sites of diverse water quality for 12 variables measured routinely in river SoE monitoring across NZ. Field measurements of water temperature, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity and visual clarity agreed closely with strong numerical similarity (within 10%). Numerical similarity ranged widely for laboratory measurements, from strong for nitrate-nitrite-nitrogen to weak for turbidity, dissolved reactive phosphorus, and ammoniacal-nitrogen. Numerical agreement was very weak for laboratory pH (which is problematic) and E. coli–which is ‘tolerable’ for many applications given good correlation (R?=?0.94) over a 2000-fold concentration range. The findings of our inter-agency comparison have contributed to quality assurance recommendations in the NZ National Environmental Monitoring Standard (NEMS) for water quality. 相似文献
92.
93.
Christian Tueckmantel Quentin J. Fisher Rob J. Knipe Henry Lickorish Samir M. Khalil 《Marine and Petroleum Geology》2010
A study of normal faults in the Nubian Sandstone Sequence, from the eastern Gulf of Suez rift, has been conducted to investigate the relationship between the microstructure and petrophysical properties of cataclasites developed along seismic-scale faults (slip-surface cataclasites) and smaller displacement faults (deformation bands) found in their damage zones. The results help to quantify the uncertainty associated with predicting the fluid flow behaviour of seismic-scale faults by analysing small faults recovered from core, a common procedure in the petroleum industry. The microstructure of the cataclasites was analysed as well as their single-phase permeability and threshold pressure. Faulting occurred at a maximum burial depth of ∼1.2 km. The permeability of deformation band and slip-surface cataclasites varies over ∼1.5 orders of magnitude for a given fault. Our results suggest that the lowest measured deformation band permeabilities provide a good estimate for the arithmetic-mean permeability of the major slip-surface cataclasites. This is because the cataclastic permeability reduction is mostly established early in the deformation history. Stress at the time of faulting rather than final strain appears to be the critical factor determining fault rock permeability. For viable predictions it is important that the slip-surface cataclasites and deformation bands originate from the same host. On the other hand, a higher uncertainty is associated with threshold pressure predictions, as the arithmetic-mean slip-surface cataclasite threshold pressure exceeds the highest measured deformation band threshold pressure by at least a factor of 4. 相似文献
94.
Linearly Organized Turbulence Structures Observed Over a Suburban Area by Dual-Doppler Lidar 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
Dual-Doppler lidar observations are used to investigate the structure and evolution of surface-layer flow over a suburban
area. The observations were made during the Joint Urban 2003 (JU2003) field experiment in Oklahoma City, U.S.A. in the summer
of 2003. This study focuses specifically on a 10-h sequence of scan data beginning shortly after noon local time on 7 July
2003. During this period two coherent Doppler lidars performed overlapping low elevation angle sector scans upwind and south
of Oklahoma City’s central business district. Radial velocity data from the two lidars are processed to reveal the structure
and evolution of the horizontal velocity field in the surface layer throughout the afternoon and during the evening transition
period. The retrieved velocity fields clearly show a tendency for turbulence structures to be elongated in the direction of
the mean flow throughout the entire 10-h study period. In order to quantify the observed anisotropy and its dependence on
stability, integral length scales are estimated directly from the spatially resolved velocity retrievals. As the flow became
more stably stratified the characteristic cross-stream dimension of the linear structures decreased. The streamwise component
was consistently more anisotropic than the cross-stream component, and both velocity components exhibited maximum anisotropy
under neutral conditions. The ratio of the streamwise to cross-stream length scale was estimated to be about eight for the
streamwise component, and four for the cross-stream component under neutral conditions. 相似文献
95.
D.R. Bridgland R. Westaway A.J. Howard A.J. Long M.J. White 《Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. Geologists' Association》2010,121(2):113-127
In recent years it has been demonstrated that the formation of long-timescale river terrace sequences, which are generally found in areas beyond the extent of most if not all of the Middle and Late Pleistocene ice sheets, has invariably been a response to uplift during the Late Cenozoic and especially the Quaternary. Climatic fluctuation at a Milankovitch timescale has driven the alternations of aggradation and incision recorded in such terraces. It has been widely observed, however, that fluvial terraces also occur in areas glaciated during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which coincides with marine oxygen isotope stage (MIS) 2. This paper, in seeking to compare records from inside and outside of the LGM ice limit, concentrates on a single English river system, that of the Humber. The Humber estuary is shared by the largely Pennine-derived drainage of the Yorkshire Ouse, to the north and entirely within the MIS 2 glacial limit, and, to the south, the Trent, which is almost wholly outside the LGM limit. Thus the Trent has a terrace sequence extending back to the Middle Pleistocene, whereas in the component rivers of the Ouse system, records begin with the melting of the last glacial ice. Importantly, there is considerable difference in the disposition of the post-LGM fluvial deposits in these two subsystems. In the Ouse system there are modest terrace staircases, commencing with full glacial deposits that stand up to 30 m above the modern floodplain. In the Trent, in contrast, last glacial gravels form the foundation of the modern floodplain, with Holocene sediments emplaced directly above them. Thus there is little or no post-LGM incision in the Trent, whereas in the Ouse several incision events are recorded, continuing into the later stages of the Holocene. Wider comparison reveals that the Ouse system is an exemplar for other sequences within the MIS 2 limit, whereas systems beyond this glaciation typically have last glacial sediments beneath their modern floodplains and show little evidence of Holocene incision. The various possible explanations of these differences are discussed, with emphasis placed on glacio-isostatic uplift of areas glaciated during MIS 2 as the main reason for the significant post-glacial incision that typifies valleys in such regions. A new approach to modelling glacio-isostatic adjustment is outlined, from which it is concluded that lower-crustal flow plays a significant role in this process in regions of relatively hot and dynamic crust, like northern England, in addition to the mantle flow that is considered in conventional analyses of glacio-isostasy. Lower-crustal flow has a significant effect due to the combination of the small spatial scale of the glaciated region of northern England and the high mobility of the lower-crustal layer beneath it, due to the heating effect of the widespread Palaeozoic granite in the area. 相似文献
96.
Christopher J. Daughney Uwe Morgenstern Rob van der Raaij Robert R. Reeves 《Hydrogeology Journal》2010,18(2):417-428
Concentrations of tritium, chlorofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride have been measured at over 100 groundwater monitoring sites across New Zealand, followed by interpretation of groundwater age distribution using the exponential-piston flow model. Interpreted mean residence times ranged from less than 1 year to more than 100 years, with the 25th, 50th (median) and 75th percentiles being approximately 10, 40 and 100 years, respectively. Classification functions derived from discriminant analysis and based on nine input variables (well depth, electrical conductivity and the concentrations of the ions Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO3, Cl and SO4) allowed assignment of 71% of the sites to the correct of four age categories (mean residence time 10 years or less, 11–40 years, 41–100 years, or more than 100 years). The discriminant analysis classification functions were more effective than regression methods for estimating groundwater age from hydrochemistry and well depth, and can thus be used to predict the groundwater age category for any monitoring site in New Zealand. 相似文献
97.
Eduardo Zorita Anders Moberg Lotta Leijonhufvud Rob Wilson Rudolf Brázdil Petr Dobrovolný Jürg Luterbacher Reinhard Böhm Christian Pfister Dirk Riemann Rüdiger Glaser Johan Söderberg Fidel González-Rouco 《Climatic change》2010,101(1-2):143-168
Two European temperature reconstructions for the past half-millennium, January-to-April air temperature for Stockholm (Sweden) and seasonal temperature for a Central European region, both derived from the analysis of documentary sources and long instrumental records, are compared with the output of climate simulations with the model ECHO-G. The analysis is complemented by comparisons with the long (early)-instrumental record of Central England Temperature (CET). Both approaches to study past climates (simulations and reconstructions) are burdened with uncertainties. The main objective of this comparative analysis is to identify robust features and weaknesses in each method which may help to improve models and reconstruction methods. The results indicate a general agreement between simulations obtained with temporally changing external forcings and the reconstructed Stockholm and CET records for the multi-centennial temperature trend over the recent centuries, which is not reproduced in a control simulation. This trend is likely due to the long-term change in external forcing. Additionally, the Stockholm reconstruction and the CET record also show a clear multi-decadal warm episode peaking around AD 1730, which is absent in the simulations. Neither the reconstruction uncertainties nor the model internal climate variability can easily explain this difference. Regarding the interannual variability, the Stockholm series displays, in some periods, higher amplitudes than the simulations but these differences are within the statistical uncertainty and further decrease if output from a regional model driven by the global model is used. The long-term trend of the CET series agrees less well with the simulations. The reconstructed temperature displays, for all seasons, a smaller difference between the present climate and past centuries than is seen in the simulations. Possible reasons for these differences may be related to a limitation of the traditional ‘indexing’ technique for converting documentary evidence to temperature values to capture long-term climate changes, because the documents often reflect temperatures relative to the contemporary authors’ own perception of what constituted ‘normal’ conditions. By contrast, the amplitude of the simulated and reconstructed inter-annual variability agrees rather well. 相似文献
98.
Detlef P. van Vuuren Jae Edmonds Steven J. Smith Kate V. Calvin Joseph Karas Mikiko Kainuma Nebojsa Nakicenovic Keywan Riahi Bas J. van Ruijven Rob Swart Allison Thomson 《Climatic change》2010,103(3-4):635-642
Long-term scenarios developed by integrated assessment models are used in climate research to provide an indication of plausible long-term emissions of greenhouse gases and other radiatively active substances based on developments in the global energy system, land-use and the emissions associated with these systems. The phenomena that determine these long-term developments (several decades or even centuries) are very different than those that operate on a shorter time-scales (a few years). Nevertheless, in the literature, we still often find direct comparisons between short-term observations and long-term developments that do not take into account the differing dynamics over these time scales. In this letter, we discuss some of the differences between the factors that operate in the short term and those that operate in the long term. We use long-term historical emissions trends to show that short-term observations are very poor indicators of long-term future emissions developments. Based on this, we conclude that the performance of long-term scenarios should be evaluated against the appropriate, corresponding long-term variables and trends. The research community may facilitate this by developing appropriate data sets and protocols that can be used to test the performance of long-term scenarios and the models that produce them. 相似文献
99.
100.
The use of the metaphors of general fitness and N-K spaces can assist in the understanding of the development of the physical landscape. Different modes of change can be viewed as different types of movement in, and distortions of, these phase spaces. Visualized in this manner landscape change can be viewed as both channelized, constrained and random. 相似文献