Variability in Early Amazonian Tharsis stress state based on wrinkle ridges and strike-slip faulting     

Chris H. Okubo  Richard A. Schultz   《Journal of Structural Geology》2006,28(12):2169

We present evidence for a decrease in the magnitude of Tharsis-circumferential compressive stress during the Late Hesperian to the Middle Amazonian based on chronologic changes in the predominant style of faulting in southern Amazonis Planitia. Using high-resolution MOLA topography, we identify a population of strike-slip faults that exhibit Middle Amazonian-aged displacements of regional chrono-stratigraphic units. These strike-slip faults are adjacent to an older population of previously documented Late Hesperian-aged thrust faults (wrinkle ridges). Along-strike orientations of these thrust and strike-slip faults reveal the Tharsis-radial stress to be the area's most compressive remote principal stress and that this stress orientation and magnitude persisted throughout the Late Hesperian to the Middle Amazonian. We show that the change in the predominant style of faulting from thrust faulting to strike-slip faulting during this time requires a decrease of the Tharsis-circumferential compressive stress to a magnitude less than lithostatic load, with negligible change in stress orientation.  相似文献   

Displacement-length scaling relations for faults on the terrestrial planets     

Richard A. Schultz  Chris H. Okubo  Scott J. Wilkins   《Journal of Structural Geology》2006,28(12):2182

Displacement-length (D/L)scaling relations for normal and thrust faults from Mars, and thrust faults from Mercury, for which sufficiently accurate measurements are available, are consistently smaller than terrestrial D/L ratios by a factor of about 5, regardless of fault type (i.e. normal or thrust). We demonstrate that D/L ratios for faults scale, to first order, with planetary gravity. In particular, confining pressure modulates: (1) the magnitude of shear driving stress on the fault; (2) the shear yield strength of near-tip rock; and (3) the Young's (or shear) modulus of crustal rock. In general, all three factors decrease with gravity for the same rock type and pore-pressure state (e.g. wet conditions). Faults on planets with lower surface gravities, such as Mars and Mercury, demonstrate systematically smaller D/L ratios than faults on larger planets, such as Earth. Smaller D/L ratios of faults on Venus and the Moon are predicted by this approach, and we infer still smaller values of D/L ratio for faults on icy satellites in the outer solar system. Collection of additional displacement-length and down-dip height data from terrestrial normal, strike-slip, and thrust faults, located within fold-and-thrust belts, plate margins, and continental interiors, is required to evaluate the influence of fault shape and progressive deformation on the scaling relations for faults from Earth and elsewhere.  相似文献   

Effects of enhanced zinc and copper in drinking water on spatial memory and fear conditioning     

L.D. Chrosniak  L.N. Smith  C.G. McDonald  B.F. Jones  J.M. Flinn 《Journal of Geochemical Exploration》2006,88(1-3):91

Ingestion of enhanced zinc can cause memory impairments and copper deficiencies. This study examined the effect of zinc supplementation, with and without copper, on two types of memory. Rats raised pre- and post-natally on 10 mg/kg ZnCO₃ or ZnSO₄ in the drinking water were tested in a fear-conditioning experiment at 11 months of age. Both zinc groups showed a maladaptive retention of fearful memories compared to controls raised on tap water. Rats raised on 10 mg/kg ZnCO₃, 10 mg/kg ZnCO₃ + 0.25 mg/kg CuCl₂, or tap water, were tested for spatial memory ability at 3 months of age. Significant improvements in performance were found in the ZnCO₃ + CuCl₂ group compared to the ZnCO₃ group, suggesting that some of the cognitive deficits associated with zinc supplementation may be remediated by addition of copper.  相似文献   

Classifying coastal waters: Current necessity and historical perspective     

J. C. Kurtz  N. D. Detenbeck  V. D. Engle  K. Ho  L. M. Smith  S. J. Jordan  D. Campbell 《Estuaries and Coasts》2006,29(1):107-123

Coastal ecosystems are ecologically and commercially valuable, productive habitats that are experiencing escalating compromises of their structural and functional integrity. The Clean Water Act (USC 1972) requires identification of impaired water bodies and determination of the causes of impairment. Classification simplifies these determinations, because estuaries within a class are more likely to respond similarly to particular stressors. We reviewed existing classification systems for their applicability to grouping coastal marine and Great Lakes water bodies based on their responses to aquatic stressors, including nutrients, toxic substances, suspended sediments, habitat alteration, and combinations of stressors. Classification research historically addressed terrestrial and freshwater habitats rather than coastal habitats. Few efforts focused on stressor response, although many well-researched classification frameworks provide information pertinent to stressor response. Early coastal classifications relied on physical and hydrological properties, including geomorphology, general circulation patterns, and salinity. More recent classifications sort ecosystems into a few broad types and may integrate physical and biological factors. Among current efforts are those designed for conservation of sensitive habitats based on ecological processes that support patterns of biological diversity. Physical factors, including freshwater inflow, residence time, and flushing rates, affect sensitivity to stressors. Biological factors, such as primary production, grazing rates, and mineral cycling, also need to be considered in classification. We evaluate each existing classification system with respect to objectives, defining factors, extent of spatial and temporal applicability, existing sources of data, and relevance to aquatic stressors. We also consider classification methods in a generic sense and discuss their strengths and weaknesses for our purposes. Although few existing classifications are based on responses to stressors, may well-researched paradigms provide important information for improving our capabilities for classification, as an investigative and predictive management tool.  相似文献   

The SHAND quaternary system for evaluating the supersilicic or subsilicic crystal-chemistry of eclogite minerals, and potential new UHPM pyroxene and garnet end-members     

D. C. Smith 《Mineralogy and Petrology》2006,88(1-2):87-122

Summary The stoichiometry of pyroxenes {^viiiX^{2+ vi}Y^{2+ iv}Z⁴⁺ ₂ O₆} and garnets {^xiiX²⁺ ₃ ^viY³⁺ ₂ ^ivZ⁴⁺ ₃ O₁₂} is re-evaluated by a theoretical crystal-chemical approach that takes into account natural phenomena that do not fit with conventional anhydrous stoichiometric mineralogy: the existence in eclogites of microinclusions of other minerals that may have been exsolved from previous supersilicic or subsilicic UHPM pyroxene or garnet. Different definitions of supersilicic and subsilicic are discussed and the one based on the ability to exsolve SiO₂ and leave behind a stoichiometric pyroxene or garnet is recommended for general adoption. The SHAND system (S = Si et al.; H = H; A = Al et al.; N = Na et al.; D = divalents) for projecting multivariate chemical space involving 23 cations and 104 selected natural or potential mineral species on to two essential diagrams (SAND and SHND) is described in full for the first time. Numerous possible chemical exchanges are considered and justified with respect to known mineral phenomena such as cation vacancies, octahedral silicon or protonation. Several new potential end-members are presented, in particular “supersilipyx”, “supersiligar” and “subsiligar”. It is suggested that small quantities of these end-members can be incorporated into UHPM solid-solutions and lead to various exsolution phenomena during eclogite exhumation.  相似文献   

Shape and distribution analysis of Merensky Reef potholing, Northam Platinum Mine, western Bushveld Complex: implications for pothole formation and growth     

Damian S. Smith  Ian J. Basson 《Mineralium Deposita》2006,41(3):281-295

Syn-magmatic removal of the cumulate pile during the formation of the Bushveld Complex resulted in “potholes”. Erosion progressed downward in the cumulate pile, resulting in a series of steep, transgressive contacts between locally conformable potholed reefs in the regional pothole sub-facies of the Swartklip Facies in the western limb of the Bushveld Complex. The deepest of these potholes, “third-order” or “FWP2” potholing, occurs where the base of the Merensky Cyclic Unit transgresses the Upper Pseudo-Reef Chromitite marker horizon. The base of a FWP2 pothole on Northam Platinum Mine consists of an unconformable stringer Merensky Chromitite overlain by a medium-grained, poikilitic orthopyroxenite and underlain by either a pegmatitic harzburgite or the medium-grained Lower Pseudo-Reef Anorthosite. Detailed shape and distribution analysis of FWP2 potholes reveals underlying patterns in their shape and distribution which, in turn, suggest a structural control. The ratio between pothole short vs long axes is 0.624 (N=1,385), although the ratio increases from 0.48 to 0.61 in the long axis range 10 to 60 m, then decreases from 0.61 to 0.57 from 61 to 100 m, increasing again from 0.57 to 0.61 from 101 to 400 m, suggesting that there is not a simple relationship between pothole shape and size. Shape (circularity, eccentricity, and dendricity) analysis of a subset of 638 potholes indicates that potholes with long axes <100 m have an elliptical, average normalized shape, elongate on a 120–150° orientation. Potholes with long axis lengths >100 m have an average normalized shape that is bilobate and elongate on a 120° orientation. The average aspect ratio (short axis length divided by long axis length) of potholes is highest for potholes with long axis lengths >100 m and lowest for potholes with long axis lengths between 35 and 60 m. The most common long axis orientation for potholes with long axis lengths <100 m is 150° but 120° for long axis lengths >100 m. Fractal analysis indicates that the distribution of pothole centers is controlled neither by a single nor several interacting fractal dimensions. Autocorrelation (Fry) analysis of the distribution of pothole centers shows recurring pothole distribution trends at 038, 070, and 110° for potholes over the full range of long axis lengths, while the trends of 008 and 152° occur in potholes with long axes lengths between 60 and 100 m. Chi-squared (X ²) analysis of the locations of pothole centers suggests that the distribution of small potholes is highly non-uniform but becomes exponentially more uniform with increasing pothole size. The model which best fits the observed shape and distribution analysis is a combination of protracted independent growth and “nearest neighbor” merging along specific orientations. For instance, the clustered distribution of original pothole centers resulted in merged potholes with long axes lengths of up to 60 m, exhibiting short vs long axes ratios of 0.61, preferred orientations of 150°, and alignment along 010 and 150° trends. Further independent growth allowed for merging of similar-sized (and smaller) neighboring potholes, generating potholes with long axes of up to 100 m in length, a preferred long axis orientation of 150°, and alignment along 010, 040, 075, and 150°. Subsequent preferential merging occurred along a 120° trend, thereby preserving a bilobate form. This implies that while pothole initiation and enlargement may be driven by a “top-down” (i.e., possibly thermomechanical) process, an underlying linear or structural catalyst/control is revealed in changes in pothole shape during enlargement and, furthermore, in the preferred trends along which potholes merged over a considerable period, possibly concomitant with adjustment of major structures in the footwall to the Bushveld Complex and pulses into the magma chamber.  相似文献   

Surface temperature differences between minerals in crystalline rocks: Implications for granular disaggregation of granites through thermal fatigue   总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4  

Miguel Gmez-Heras  Bernard J. Smith  Rafael Fort 《Geomorphology》2006,78(3-4):236-249

Thermal expansion differences between minerals within rocks under insolation have previously been assumed to drive breakdown by means of granular disaggregation. However, there have been no definitive demonstrations of the efficacy of this weathering mechanism. Different surface temperatures between minerals should magnify thermal expansion differences, and thus subject adjacent minerals to repeated stresses that might cause breakdown through fatigue failure. This work confirms the existence of surface temperature differences between minerals in granitic rocks under simulated short-term temperature fluctuations so as to discriminate their potential for initiating granular disaggregation. The influence of colour, as a surrogate for albedo, and crystal size, as a function of thermal mass are specifically identified because of their ease of quantification. Four rock types with a range of these properties were examined, and subjected to repeated short-term temperature cycles by radiative heating and cooling under laboratory conditions. Results show that while albedo is the main control for overall and individual maximum temperatures, crystal size is the main factor controlling higher temperature differences between minerals. Thus, stones with large differences of mineral sizes can undergo magnified stresses due to thermal expansion differences.  相似文献   

The New Berlin: Memory,Politics, and Place by Karen E. Till     

Chris Steele 《The Professional geographer》2006,58(3):357-359

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Relative importance of the Hercynian and post-Jurassic tectonic phases in the Saharan platform: a palaeomagnetic study of Jurassic sills in the Reggane Basin (Algeria)   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  

B. Smith  M. E. M. Derder  B. Henry  B. Bayou  A. K. Yelles  H. Djellit  M. Amenna  M. Garces  E. Beamud  J. P. Callot  R. Eschard  A. Chambers  T. Aifa  R. Ait Ouali  H. Gandriche 《Geophysical Journal International》2006,167(1):380-396

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Geomechanical model for fracture deformation under hydraulic, mechanical and thermal loads     

Chris McDermott  Olaf Kolditz 《Hydrogeology Journal》2006,14(4):485-498

Hydraulic flow and transport (heat and solute) within crystalline rocks is dominated by the fracture systems found within them. In situ stress conditions have a significant impact on the hydraulic, mechanical and thermal coupled processes, and quantification of these processes provides a key to understanding the often transient time-dependent behaviour of crystalline rocks. In this paper, a geomechanical model is presented which describes fracture closure as a function of effective stress and the changes in parameters such as storage, permeability, porosity and aperture. Allowing the fracture closure to be defined by the change in normal effective stress provides a link to the numerical consideration of parametrical changes due to rock stress alterations caused for example by changes in fracture fluid pressure, stress release, tectonic stress, thermal stress, orientation of the natural fracture in the pervasive stress system and local changes in a rock mass due to stress alteration. The model uses geometrical considerations based on a fractal distribution of apertures on the fracture surface, and applies well-established analytical elastic deformation solutions to calculate the deformation response to changes in effective stress. Analysis of the fractal generation method allows a standard normal distribution of fracture apertures to be predicted for all common fractal dimensions relating to a 2D surface. Changes in the fracture aperture are related to hydraulic functions such as permeability, storage and porosity of the fracture. The geomechanical model is experimentally validated against laboratory scale experimental data gained from the closure of a fractured sample recovered at a depth of 3,800 m from the KTB pilot borehole. Parameters for matching the experimental data were established externally, the only fitting parameters applied were the minimum and maximum contact area between the surfaces and the number of allowable contacts. The model provides an insight into the key processes determining the closure of a fracture, and can act as a material input function for numerical models linking the effects of changes in the stress field, hydraulic or thermal conditions, to the flow and transport parameters of a fractured system.

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Résumé L’écoulement et le transport (chaleur et soluté) dans les roches cristallines sont dominés par les systèmes de fracture. Les conditions de stress in-situ ont un impact significatif sur l’hydraulique, les processus couplés de mécanique et thermique et la quantification de ces processus apportent une clé pour comprendre le comportement transitoire des roches cristallines. Dans cet article un modèle géomécanique est présenté, modèle qui décrit la fermeture des fractures comme une fonction de la contrainte effective et des changements de paramètres tels le coefficient d’emmagasinement, la perméabilité, la porosité et l’ouverture. En s’accordant que la fermeture des fractures est définit par les changements de la contrainte effective normale, on apporte le lien avec la considération numérique des changements paramétriques dus aux altérations de la contrainte des roches, causés par exemple par des variations de la pression des fluides dans les fractures, du dégagement de la contrainte, des contraintes tectoniques et thermiques, des orientations des fractures naturelles dans le système de contraintes pénétrantes, et des changements locaux dans un massif de roches dus à l’altération des contraintes. Le modèle utilise des considérations géométriques basées sur une distribution fractale des ouvertures à la surface des fractures, et permet d’établir des solutions analytiques de la déformation élastique pour calculer la réponse de la déformation à la contrainte effective. L’analyse de la méthode par génération fractale permet de prédire une distribution normale standard de l’ouverture des fractures, pour toutes les dimensions fractales en relation avec les surfaces 2D. Les changements dans l’ouverture des fractures sont mis en relation avec les fonctions hydrauliques tels la perméabilité, l’emmagasinement et la porosité de la fracture. Le modèle géoméchanique est expérimentalement validé à l’échelle du laboratoire sur un échantillon fracturé récupéré à une profondeur de 3,800 mètres sur le puits du site pilote KTB. Les paramètres du calibrage des données expérimentales ont été établies extérieurement, les seuls paramètres utilisés étant les surfaces de contact minimum et maximum, et le nombre de contacts permis. Le modèle apporte une connaissance perspicace sur le processus clé déterminant la fermeture des fractures, et peut servir de fonction input dans les modèles numériques reliant les effets des variations de la contrainte du terrain, les conditions hydrauliques ou thermales, les paramètres de l’écoulement et du transport et les systèmes de fracture.

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Resumen El flujo hidráulico y transporte (de calor y solutos) dentro de rocas cristalinas está dominado por los sistemas de fracturas que se encuentran en ellas. Las condiciones de esfuerzos in-situ tienen un impacto significativo en los procesos aparejados termales, mecánicos e hidráulicos y la cuantificación de estos procesos aporta una clave para entender el frecuente comportamiento transitorio dependiente de las rocas cristalinas. En este artículo se presenta un modelo geomecánico que describe el cierre de fracturas en función del esfuerzo efectivo y los cambios en parámetros tal como almacenamiento, permeabilidad, porosidad y apertura. El definir el cierre de fractura mediante el cambio en esfuerzo normal efectivo aporta un vínculo con la consideración numérica de cambios paramétricos ocasionados por alteraciones de esfuerzos en la roca causadas, por ejemplo, por cambios en presión de fluidos en fractura, liberación de esfuerzo, esfuerzo tectónico, esfuerzo termal, orientación de fracturas naturales en el sistema de esfuerzos penetrante, y cambios locales en una masa rocosa ocasionados por alteración de esfuerzos. El modelo utiliza consideraciones geométricas basadas en la distribución fractal de aperturas en la superficie de fractura y aplica soluciones analíticas bien establecidas de deformación elástica para calcular la respuesta de deformación a cambios en el esfuerzo efectivo. Los análisis del método de generación fractal permiten predecir una distribución normal standard para la distribución de aperturas de fracturas para todas las dimensiones fractales comunes que se relacionan con una superficie 2D. Los cambios en la apertura de fractura se relacionan con funciones hidráulicas tal como permeabilidad, almacenamiento y porosidad de la fractura. El modelo geomecánico se ha validado experimentalmente en contra de datos experimentales a escala de laboratorio obtenidos a partir del cierre de una muestra fracturada recuperada a una profundidad de 3,800 m en el pozo piloto KTB. Se establecieron externamente parámetros que se ajustan a los datos experimentales, con los parámetros de ajuste aplicados que fueron el área máxima y mínima de contacto entre las superficies y el número de contactos permisibles. El modelo arroja luz sobre los procesos clave que determinan el cierre de una fractura y puede actuar como un material de función de entrada para modelos numéricos que vinculan los efectos de cambios en el campo de esfuerzos, condiciones termales o hidráulicas, con los parámetros de flujo y transporte de un sistema fracturado.

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