Displacement-length scaling relations for faults on the terrestrial planets     

Richard A. Schultz  Chris H. Okubo  Scott J. Wilkins   《Journal of Structural Geology》2006,28(12):2182

Displacement-length (D/L)scaling relations for normal and thrust faults from Mars, and thrust faults from Mercury, for which sufficiently accurate measurements are available, are consistently smaller than terrestrial D/L ratios by a factor of about 5, regardless of fault type (i.e. normal or thrust). We demonstrate that D/L ratios for faults scale, to first order, with planetary gravity. In particular, confining pressure modulates: (1) the magnitude of shear driving stress on the fault; (2) the shear yield strength of near-tip rock; and (3) the Young's (or shear) modulus of crustal rock. In general, all three factors decrease with gravity for the same rock type and pore-pressure state (e.g. wet conditions). Faults on planets with lower surface gravities, such as Mars and Mercury, demonstrate systematically smaller D/L ratios than faults on larger planets, such as Earth. Smaller D/L ratios of faults on Venus and the Moon are predicted by this approach, and we infer still smaller values of D/L ratio for faults on icy satellites in the outer solar system. Collection of additional displacement-length and down-dip height data from terrestrial normal, strike-slip, and thrust faults, located within fold-and-thrust belts, plate margins, and continental interiors, is required to evaluate the influence of fault shape and progressive deformation on the scaling relations for faults from Earth and elsewhere.  相似文献   

The New Berlin: Memory,Politics, and Place by Karen E. Till     

Chris Steele 《The Professional geographer》2006,58(3):357-359

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Geomechanical model for fracture deformation under hydraulic, mechanical and thermal loads     

Chris McDermott  Olaf Kolditz 《Hydrogeology Journal》2006,14(4):485-498

Hydraulic flow and transport (heat and solute) within crystalline rocks is dominated by the fracture systems found within them. In situ stress conditions have a significant impact on the hydraulic, mechanical and thermal coupled processes, and quantification of these processes provides a key to understanding the often transient time-dependent behaviour of crystalline rocks. In this paper, a geomechanical model is presented which describes fracture closure as a function of effective stress and the changes in parameters such as storage, permeability, porosity and aperture. Allowing the fracture closure to be defined by the change in normal effective stress provides a link to the numerical consideration of parametrical changes due to rock stress alterations caused for example by changes in fracture fluid pressure, stress release, tectonic stress, thermal stress, orientation of the natural fracture in the pervasive stress system and local changes in a rock mass due to stress alteration. The model uses geometrical considerations based on a fractal distribution of apertures on the fracture surface, and applies well-established analytical elastic deformation solutions to calculate the deformation response to changes in effective stress. Analysis of the fractal generation method allows a standard normal distribution of fracture apertures to be predicted for all common fractal dimensions relating to a 2D surface. Changes in the fracture aperture are related to hydraulic functions such as permeability, storage and porosity of the fracture. The geomechanical model is experimentally validated against laboratory scale experimental data gained from the closure of a fractured sample recovered at a depth of 3,800 m from the KTB pilot borehole. Parameters for matching the experimental data were established externally, the only fitting parameters applied were the minimum and maximum contact area between the surfaces and the number of allowable contacts. The model provides an insight into the key processes determining the closure of a fracture, and can act as a material input function for numerical models linking the effects of changes in the stress field, hydraulic or thermal conditions, to the flow and transport parameters of a fractured system.

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Résumé L’écoulement et le transport (chaleur et soluté) dans les roches cristallines sont dominés par les systèmes de fracture. Les conditions de stress in-situ ont un impact significatif sur l’hydraulique, les processus couplés de mécanique et thermique et la quantification de ces processus apportent une clé pour comprendre le comportement transitoire des roches cristallines. Dans cet article un modèle géomécanique est présenté, modèle qui décrit la fermeture des fractures comme une fonction de la contrainte effective et des changements de paramètres tels le coefficient d’emmagasinement, la perméabilité, la porosité et l’ouverture. En s’accordant que la fermeture des fractures est définit par les changements de la contrainte effective normale, on apporte le lien avec la considération numérique des changements paramétriques dus aux altérations de la contrainte des roches, causés par exemple par des variations de la pression des fluides dans les fractures, du dégagement de la contrainte, des contraintes tectoniques et thermiques, des orientations des fractures naturelles dans le système de contraintes pénétrantes, et des changements locaux dans un massif de roches dus à l’altération des contraintes. Le modèle utilise des considérations géométriques basées sur une distribution fractale des ouvertures à la surface des fractures, et permet d’établir des solutions analytiques de la déformation élastique pour calculer la réponse de la déformation à la contrainte effective. L’analyse de la méthode par génération fractale permet de prédire une distribution normale standard de l’ouverture des fractures, pour toutes les dimensions fractales en relation avec les surfaces 2D. Les changements dans l’ouverture des fractures sont mis en relation avec les fonctions hydrauliques tels la perméabilité, l’emmagasinement et la porosité de la fracture. Le modèle géoméchanique est expérimentalement validé à l’échelle du laboratoire sur un échantillon fracturé récupéré à une profondeur de 3,800 mètres sur le puits du site pilote KTB. Les paramètres du calibrage des données expérimentales ont été établies extérieurement, les seuls paramètres utilisés étant les surfaces de contact minimum et maximum, et le nombre de contacts permis. Le modèle apporte une connaissance perspicace sur le processus clé déterminant la fermeture des fractures, et peut servir de fonction input dans les modèles numériques reliant les effets des variations de la contrainte du terrain, les conditions hydrauliques ou thermales, les paramètres de l’écoulement et du transport et les systèmes de fracture.

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Resumen El flujo hidráulico y transporte (de calor y solutos) dentro de rocas cristalinas está dominado por los sistemas de fracturas que se encuentran en ellas. Las condiciones de esfuerzos in-situ tienen un impacto significativo en los procesos aparejados termales, mecánicos e hidráulicos y la cuantificación de estos procesos aporta una clave para entender el frecuente comportamiento transitorio dependiente de las rocas cristalinas. En este artículo se presenta un modelo geomecánico que describe el cierre de fracturas en función del esfuerzo efectivo y los cambios en parámetros tal como almacenamiento, permeabilidad, porosidad y apertura. El definir el cierre de fractura mediante el cambio en esfuerzo normal efectivo aporta un vínculo con la consideración numérica de cambios paramétricos ocasionados por alteraciones de esfuerzos en la roca causadas, por ejemplo, por cambios en presión de fluidos en fractura, liberación de esfuerzo, esfuerzo tectónico, esfuerzo termal, orientación de fracturas naturales en el sistema de esfuerzos penetrante, y cambios locales en una masa rocosa ocasionados por alteración de esfuerzos. El modelo utiliza consideraciones geométricas basadas en la distribución fractal de aperturas en la superficie de fractura y aplica soluciones analíticas bien establecidas de deformación elástica para calcular la respuesta de deformación a cambios en el esfuerzo efectivo. Los análisis del método de generación fractal permiten predecir una distribución normal standard para la distribución de aperturas de fracturas para todas las dimensiones fractales comunes que se relacionan con una superficie 2D. Los cambios en la apertura de fractura se relacionan con funciones hidráulicas tal como permeabilidad, almacenamiento y porosidad de la fractura. El modelo geomecánico se ha validado experimentalmente en contra de datos experimentales a escala de laboratorio obtenidos a partir del cierre de una muestra fracturada recuperada a una profundidad de 3,800 m en el pozo piloto KTB. Se establecieron externamente parámetros que se ajustan a los datos experimentales, con los parámetros de ajuste aplicados que fueron el área máxima y mínima de contacto entre las superficies y el número de contactos permisibles. El modelo arroja luz sobre los procesos clave que determinan el cierre de una fractura y puede actuar como un material de función de entrada para modelos numéricos que vinculan los efectos de cambios en el campo de esfuerzos, condiciones termales o hidráulicas, con los parámetros de flujo y transporte de un sistema fracturado.

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Validation of a fish farm waste resuspension model by use of a particulate tracer discharged from a point source in a coastal environment   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  

Chris J. Cromey  Thom D. Nickell  Kenneth D. Black  Paul G. Provost  Colin R. Griffiths 《Estuaries and Coasts》2002,25(5):916-929

To validate a resuspension model of particulate material (salmonid farm wastes), a UV fluorescent particle tracer was selected with similar settling characteristics. Tracer was introduced to the seabed (water depth ≈30 m) and sediment samples taken on days 0, 3, 10, 17 and 30 to measure the horizontal and vertical distribution of tracer in sediments. A concentric sampling grid was established at radii of 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, 400, 700 and 1, 000 m from the source on transects 30° apart. The bulk of the deployed tracer was initially concentrated in an area 25 m radius from the release point; tracer was observed to steadily decrease to zero over a period of 30 days. In a 200 m region measured from the release point in the direction of the residual current, the redeposition of tracer was low. A Lagrangian particle tracking model was validated using these observed data by varying resuspension model parameters within limits to obtain the best agreement between spatial and temporal distributions. The validated model generally gave good predictions of total mass budgets (±7% of total tracer released), particulary where tracer concentrations were high near the release point. Best fit model parameters (critical erosion shear stress=0.018 N m⁻², erodibility constan=60 g m⁻² d⁻¹) are at the low end of reported parameters for coastal resuspension models. Such a low critical erosion shear stress indicates that the frequency of resuspension and deposition events for freshly deposited material is high.  相似文献   

The base of the Portsdown Chalk Formation (Chalk Group, White Chalk Subgroup) in the BGS Big Almer Wood Borehole, Dorset, southern England     

C. Roger BristowIan Wilkinson  Chris WoodMark Woods 《Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. Geologists' Association》2002,113(1):37-45

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Late Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic geotherms in the Kaapvaal craton, South Africa: constraints on the thermal evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin     

R. L. Gibson  M. Q. W. Jones 《Basin Research》2002,14(2):169-181

The c. 2.97–2.71 Ga Witwatersrand Basin located in the Kaapvaal craton of South Africa represents a remnant of a large Late Archaean sedimentary basin that hosts the world's premier gold deposit within a series of conglomerate horizons. Evidence of postdepositional gold mobility within these conglomerates associated with hydrothermal–metamorphic activity has led to speculation about the Late Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic geothermal gradients in the basin. We use surface heat flow and heat production data from rocks in the basin and its environs in order to calculate detailed temperature profiles for the central Kaapvaal craton that show that the steady state crustal geotherm during the Late Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic was relatively cool at 15–20 K km^?1. The geotherm in the upper crustal strata is also largely unaffected by substantial increases in the heat flow into the base of the crust. Consequently, regional greenschist facies metamorphism of the basin sediments could only have been achieved during a transient thermal event that advected heat into the upper crust. The most likely candidate for this is the Bushveld magmatic event at 2.06 Ga.  相似文献   

Employment and Socio-spatial Relations in Australia's Cultural Economy   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  

Chris Gibson  Peter Murphy  Robert Freestone 《The Australian geographer》2002,33(2):173-189

This paper examines the significance and contribution of Australian 'creative' industry activities in light of recent debates on the emergence of the 'cultural economy of cities'. First, census employment data and business location counts are used to illustrate patterns of metropolitan primacy and concentration in the cultural industries both across states and in Sydney. Second, the specificities of the locations of cultural production, and the links between cultural industry activities and wider urban-regional change are explored in more detail. A set of observations of urban-regional change is used to demonstrate how the notion of 'cultural economy' should include complex interactions between the material activities of consumers and producers, and the discursive worlds of image makers and place marketers. Urban renewal, housing market pressures and intra-regional migration all mediate Australian experiences of the 'cultural economy'. Such interactions, in addition to key quantitative data on employment and business activity, suggest important policy considerations.  相似文献   

Onshore and offshore seismic and lithostratigraphic analysis of a deeply incised Quaternary buried valley system in the Northern Netherlands     

Sjoerd J. Kluiving  J. H. Aleid Bosch  Jan H. J. Ebbing  Chris S. Mesdag  Rogier S. Westerhoff 《Journal of Applied Geophysics》2003,53(4):249

High-resolution seismic data (onshore and offshore), geophysical borehole data as well as detailed lithofacies from airlift boreholes were acquired in northern Netherlands on and around the island of Ameland. Marine and land seismic data combined with information from land boreholes have been explored with the objective of providing a sedimentary model. Qualitative seismic facies analysis of the valley fill commonly shows a thin unit with high amplitude reflectors at the base. Thick units of variable seismic facies (transparent to high amplitude) occur higher up in the sequence. Onlap is common at mid–upper levels within the sandy valley fill (with clay in mm layering), and a transparent seismic facies, corresponding to firm clays, is common at the top. Almost all lithological unit boundaries recognised within core parameters correspond with seismic unconformities within error margins. Subunits contain multiple cyclical trends in gamma ray and grain size. Cyclical trends show lower order fluctuations in gamma radiation on a scale of less than 1 m. Gamma-ray pattern variability between units, e.g. in general coarsening-up or fining-up units, suggests migration of subaqueous outwash fans or ice margin fluctuations. Seismic results could support a headward excavation and backfilling process suggested by Praeg [Morphology, stratigraphy and genesis of buried Elsterian tunnel valleys in the southern North Sea basin [PhD thesis]: University of Edinburgh, 207 pp.; Journal of Applied Geophysics, (this volume)] as being responsible for the formation of buried valleys. On a lithological scale, a more complicated, detailed and cyclical pattern arises. Catastrophic processes are considered unlikely as being responsible for the infill sequence because of the observed small-scale facies variability and because of the presence of diamicton layers. Diamicton layers at the base of basal unconformities as well as higher in sequence could suggest subglacial deformation by grounded ice before and during the valley-fill process.  相似文献   

A rooftop tuned mass damper frame     

Jerod G. Johnson  Lawrence D. Reaveley  Chris Pantelides 《地震工程与结构动力学》2003,32(6):965-984

This article documents the analytical study and feasibility of placing a tuned mass damper in the form of a limber rooftop moment frame atop relatively stiff structures to reduce seismic acceleration response. Six existing structures were analytically studied using a suite of time history and response spectra records. The analyses indicate that adding mass in conjunction with a limber frame results in an increase in the fundamental period of each structure. The fundamental period increase generally results in a decrease in seismic acceleration response for the same time history and response spectra records. Owing to the limber nature of the rooftop frames, non‐linear analysis methods were required to evaluate the stability of the rooftop tuned mass damper frame. The results indicate the addition of a rooftop tuned mass damper frame reduces the seismic acceleration response for most cases although acceleration response can increase if the rooftop frame is not tuned to accommodate the specific structure's dynamic behaviour and localized soil conditions. Appropriate design of the rooftop tuned mass damper frame can result in decreased seismic acceleration response. This translates to safer structures if used as a retrofit measure or a more economical design if used for new construction. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

Water and sediment outbursts from advanced Franz Josef Glacier,New Zealand   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  

Timothy R. H. Davies  Chris C. Smart  Jill M. Turnbull 《地球表面变化过程与地形》2003,28(10):1081-1096

The Franz Josef Glacier, Westland, New Zealand, has a history of catastrophic sediment‐laden outburst ?oods associated with extreme rainfall events when the glacier toe is advanced over its own sediments. Consideration of these events and inspection of recent sediment deposits suggest that there are three distinct modes of outburst. The ?rst is associated with fans fed by over?ow along the glacier margin. As the glacier has advanced across its own fore?eld gravels, it is inferred that the primary drainage conduit has developed a reach of negative slope. In high ?ows massive boulders can block the conduit, trapping lesser clasts. The resulting backup of water causes over?ows through marginal moulins, producing the fan type of deposit. The second type of outburst deposits massive imbricated boulders at a greater or lesser distance from the glacier portal. In this case, pressure buildup drives the blockage out of the portal where the boulders deposit. Smaller materials are generally carried away. The third type consists of very shallow ?ows, and produces massive gravel deposits of uncertain provenance. In this condition, the excess pressure in the conduit results in slight uplift of the glacier and widespread discharge of water and sediment below the glacier snout; gravels and smaller sediments are laid down in a massive deposit across the fore?eld. The massive, boulder‐veneered deposit from the December 1995 outburst is interpreted in the light of the above mechanisms as a hyperconcentrated ?ow deposit from hydraulic jacking, overlain by boulders emplaced by a subsequent conduit outburst. A possible association of outbursts with the present advanced position of the glacier is suggested. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献