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431.
This paper details and describes a suite of 143 sub-seismic-scale clastic injectites encountered within the early Cretaceous, early post-rift of the deep-lacustrine North Falkland Basin. The injectites, referred to here as the Sea Lion Injectite System, are encountered below, above and in between the hydrocarbon-bearing, deep-lacustrine turbidite sandstones of the Bleaker 30, Sea Lion North, Sea Lion, Casper and Beverley fans. Sedimentary structures are documented within the injectites including: planar laminations, mud-clast imbrication and clast alignment. Clasts align along centimetre-scale foresets formed through ripple-scale bedform migration in a hydraulically-open fracture. The style of flow within the injectite system is interpreted as initially through fluid turbulence during an open fracture phase, which was followed by a later stage where laminar flow dominated, most likely during the closing phase of the fracture system. The host rocks display evidence for ductile deformation, which along with ptygmatic folding of dykes and internally injected mud-clasts, suggests a period of injection into relatively uncompacted sediments. Evidence for brittle fracturing, in the form of stepped margins may be indicative of a separate phase of emplacement into more-compacted sediments. This variability in deformation styles is related to multi-phased injection episodes into host strata at different stages of consolidation and lithification at shallow burial depths. Injectites have been identified in four stratigraphic groupings: above the Bleaker 30 Fan and within/above the Sea Lion North Fan; within the hydrocarbon-bearing Sea Lion Fan; overlying the Sea Lion Fan; and above/below the hydrocarbon-bearing Casper and Beverley fans. This spatial association with the hydrocarbon-bearing fans of the North Falkland Basin is important, considering the ability of injectite networks to form effective fluid-flow conduits in the subsurface. Consequently, the findings of this study will improve the characterization of sub-seismic scale injectites (and therefore fluid conduits) within otherwise impermeable strata. 相似文献
432.
Surface runoff plays an important role in contaminant transport, nutrient loss, soil erosion and peak discharges in streams and rivers. Because it is the result of a variety of complex hydrological processes, estimating surface runoff using physically based hydrological models is challenging. Upscaling of physical soil properties is necessary to cope with the limits of computational power in surface runoff modelling. In flat landscapes, the (micro)topographic surface controls the onset and progression of surface runoff on saturated soils during rain events. Therefore, its proper representation is crucial when attempting to model and predict surface runoff. In this study, the influence of microtopography (centimetre scale) on estimations of maximum depression storage (MDS), random roughness (RR) and the connectivity threshold (CT) is explored. These properties are selected because they often serve as surface runoff indicators in hydrological modelling. To characterize microtopography, a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) is used to generate a digital terrain model (DTM) of the study site with a horizontal spatial resolution of 5 cm. MDS, RR and CT are then calculated and compared to the values generated from the publicly available Dutch national DTM dataset with a resolution of 50 cm. Our results show considerable differences in MDS, RR and CT when calculated for the different input resolution datasets. Using DTMs that do not sufficiently capture microtopography leads to underestimation of MDS and RR, and to overestimation of CT. Our findings indicate that surface runoff indicators, and thereby the surface runoff response of a saturated surface to rainfall events, are defined at scales smaller than the scales of typically available DTMs. Understanding surface runoff through modelling studies therefore requires a framework that accounts for this lack of information arising from using coarser resolution DTMs. We demonstrate a linear relationship between MDS values generated from the different resolution DTMs. This opens the possibility of using empirical scaling relationships between high- and lower-resolution DTMs to account for microtopography. Repetition of our measurements on similar surfaces would contribute to establishing such empirical scaling relationships. Our results should be seen as indicative of flat landscapes and surfaces where centimetre scale microtopography is relevant. 相似文献
433.
Evolution characteristics of hydrological connectivity pattern of marsh wetland in Naoli River Basin
As an important indicator of the structural and functional stability of wetland landscapes, hydrological connectivity plays an important role in maintaining the stability of wetland ecosystems. Large-scale human activities have led to significant changes in the hydrological connectivity pattern of wetlands in Naoli River Basin since 1950 s. Combined with the availability of wetland habitat and the spreading capacity of aquatic birds, hydrological connectivity indices of marsh wetlands were calculated in the studied area, and the temporal and spatial changes were analyzed from 1950 s to 2015. The results indicate that:(1) the hydrological connectivity index of the marsh wetlands shows a growth trend with increasing distance threshold. All patches of marsh wetlands linked together when the distance threshold reached 35--40 km;(2) the optimal distance of hydrological connectivity is about 10 km for marsh wetlands of whole Naoli River Basin;(3) the total hydrological connectivity of marsh wetlands decreased in the Naoli River Basin from 1950 s to 2015. Although the hydrological connectivity index increased after 2005, the fragmentation of the landscape has not been improved. The analysis of the wetland hydrological connectivity can provide a scientific basis for the ecological restoration and protection of the wetland in the Naoli River Basin. 相似文献
434.
Stream temperature (Ts) is a key water quality parameter that controls several biological, ecological, and chemical processes in aquatic systems. In forested headwaters, exchanges of energy across air-water-streambed interfaces may influence Ts regimes, especially during storm events as the sources of runoff change over space and time. Analysis of the hysteretic behaviour of Ts during storm events may provide insights into rainfall-runoff responses, but such relationships have not been thoroughly investigated. As such, our objectives were to (a) quantify the variability of stream temperature hysteresis across seasons in different sub-regions and (b) investigate the relationship between the hysteretic response and catchment characteristics. Ts hysteresis during storm events was assessed based on the hysteresis index (HI), which describes the directionality of hysteresis loops, and the temperature response index (TRI), which indicates whether Ts increased or decreased during a storm event. We analysed Ts data from 10 forested headwater reaches in two sub-regions (McGarvey and West Fork Tectah) in Northern California. We also performed a clustering analysis to examine the relationship amongst HI, TRI, topographic metrics, and meteorological characteristics of the study areas. Overall, the hysteretic behaviour of Ts varied across seasons—the greatest HI occurred during spring and summer. Interestingly, in the McGarvey streams the variability in Ts hysteresis co-varied strongly with topographic metrics (i.e., upslope accumulative area, average channel slope, topographic wetness index). Comparatively, in West Fork Tectah the variability of Ts hysteresis co-varied most strongly with meteorological metrics (i.e., antecedent rainfall events, solar radiation, and air temperature). Variables such as the gradient between stream and air temperatures, slope, and wetted width were significant for both sub-regional hysteretic patterns. We posit that the drivers of Ts response during storms are likely dependent on catchment physiographic characteristics. Our study also illustrated the potential utility of stream temperature as a tracer for improving the understanding of hydrologic connectivity and shifts in the dominant runoff contributions to streamflow during storm events. 相似文献
435.