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Using a robust global precipitation database, we analyze coast-to-interior seasonal precipitation distributions over the world’s major forest regions. We find that the active functioning of boreal forests in summer is associated with an intense ocean-to-land moisture transport, which declines in winter when forest functioning is minimal. This seasonal switch manifests itself as a change in the exponential scale length of precipitation distribution, which exceeds 15?×?103 km in summer but decreases to (3–4)?×?103 km in winter. In equatorial rainforests, which are photosynthetically active throughout the year, annual precipitation remains approximately constant, while the coefficient of variation of monthly precipitation significantly declines toward the continent interior. Precipitation over forest during the periods of active forest functioning is always higher than over the adjacent ocean. Such precipitation patterns support the biotic pump concept according to which forest cover drives the ocean-to-land atmospheric moisture transport on a continental scale.  相似文献   
2.
Gold and copper concentrations were determined in natural pyrite by near‐infrared femtosecond LA‐ICP‐QMS, using both sulfide reference materials (pyrrhotite Po‐726 and in‐house natural chalcopyrite Cpy‐RM) and NIST SRM 610 as external calibrators. Firstly, using NIST SRM 610 as the external calibrator, we calculated the Au concentration in Po‐726 and the Cu concentration in Cpy‐RM. The calculated concentration averages for Au and Cu were similar to the values published for Po‐726 and Cpy‐RM, respectively. Secondly, we calculated Au and Cu concentrations taking NIST SRM 610 as an unknown sample and using Po‐726 and Cpy‐RM as external calibrators. Again, the average values obtained closely reflected the preferred concentrations for NIST SRM 610. Finally, we calculated Au and Cu concentrations in natural pyrite using sulfide and silicate reference materials as external calibrators. In both cases, calculated concentrations were very similar, independent of the external calibrator used. The aforementioned data, plus the fact that we obtained very small differences in relative sensitivity values (percentage differences are between 5% and 17% for 57Fe, 63Cu and 197Au) on analyses of silicate and sulfide RMs, indicate that there were no matrix effects related to the differences in material composition. Thus, it is possible to determine Au and Cu in natural sulfides using NIST silicate glasses as an external calibrator.  相似文献   
3.
The probability distribution of the height of global maximum for a Gaussian random field evolving in time is studied. In particular, the effect of spreading is studied and the role of the wave kinematics is discussed. It is observed that taking into account time dynamics of spatial characteristics results in distributions different from those obtained for the static case. The results are illustrated by computing the derived distribution for different Gaussian seas for three distinct sampling schemes. The resulting distributions are also used to compute return periods for rogue waves.  相似文献   
4.
Solubility of senarmontite (Sb2O3, cubic) in pure water and NaCl-HCl aqueous solutions, and local atomic structure around antimony in these fluids were characterized using in situ X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy at temperatures to 450 °C and pressures to 600 bars. These experiments were performed using a new X-ray cell which allows simultaneous measurement of the absolute concentration of the absorbing element in the fluid, and atomic environment around the absorber. Results show that aqueous Sb(III) speciation is dominated by the complex in pure water, mixed Sb-hydroxide-chloride complexes in acidic NaCl-HCl solutions (2 m NaCl-0.1 m HCl), and by Sb-chloride species in concentrated HCl solutions (3.5 m HCl). Interatomic Sb-O and Sb-Cl distances in these complexes range from 1.96 to 1.97 Å and from 2.37 to 2.47 Å, respectively. These structural data, together with senarmontite solubility determined from XAFS spectra, were complemented by batch-reactor measurements of senarmontite and stibnite (Sb2S3, rhombic) solubilities over a wide range of HCl and NaCl concentrations from 300 to 400 °C. Analysis of the whole dataset shows that Sb(III) speciation in high-temperature moderately acid (pH > 2-3) Cl-rich fluids is dominated by mixed hydroxy-chloride species like Sb(OH)2Cl° and Sb(OH)3Cl−, but other species containing two or three Cl atoms appear at higher acidities and moderate temperatures (?300 °C). Calculations using stability constants retrieved in this study indicate that mixed hydroxy-chloride complexes control antimony transport in saline high-temperature ore fluids at acidic conditions. Such species allow for a more effective Sb partitioning into the vapor phase during boiling and vapor-brine separation processes occurring in magmatic-hydrothermal systems. Antimony hydroxy-chloride complexes are however minor in the neutral low- to moderate-temperature solutions (?250-300 °C) typical of Sb deposits formation; the antimony speciation in these systems is dominated by Sb(OH)3 and potentially Sb-sulfide species.  相似文献   
5.
This paper reports on the application of variants of LA-ICP-MS – including infrared femtosecond laser ablation (fs-LA) inductively coupled plasma-quadrupole mass spectrometry (ICP-QMS) and nanosecond laser ablation (ns-LA) coupled with single-collector sector-field (SF-) ICP-MS – to the in situ determination of trace elements in different splits of the reference material (RM) ATHO-G (MPI-DING). Analyses of the materials performed by fs- and ns-LA-ICP-MS demonstrated the efficiency of the techniques with typical accuracy at a level of ≤ ± 20%. One ‘anomalous’ split, however, displayed a significant discrepancy from the reference concentrations for B, V, Zn, Mo, Sn, Sb, Cs, W and Pb. Three- to six-fold enrichment of V, Mo, Cs and Pt relative to the reference contents in this split is likely to have been due to direct contact of the silicate melt with Pt crucible walls and ceramics. Boron, Zn, Sn, Sb, W and Pb depletion relative to the reference concentrations is probably due to siderophile element adsorption by the Pt walls and/or related to the formation of volatile-depleted compositional cords during the preparation process. Our results imply that additional precautions should be taken against volatile/siderophile element heterogeneity in marginal/surface layers (≤ 10 mm) during the preparation of RMs by the fusion technique.  相似文献   
6.
The dacite pumice erupted from Mt. Pinatubo on June 15, 1991 (whole-rock, rhyolitic groundmass glasses and homogenized melt inclusions) has been analyzed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), nanosecond and femtosecond laser ablation ICP-MS and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) to evaluate its ore-forming potential. Data suggest that adakite magmas are metal-rich and concentrate ore metals during magmatic differentiation. Sulfides segregate in limited amounts under the hydrous, oxidizing conditions typical of adakitic magmas resulting in incompatible behavior for Au (6-22 ppb), Cu (26-77 ppm), and Pb, Mo, As, and Sb in melts of dacitic to rhyolitic compositions. Metal transfer from this adakite magma to the coexisting aqueous phase was favored by the peraluminous composition of the rhyolitic melt and high aqueous chloride concentrations. Mass balance calculations suggest that the pre-eruptive aqueous phase could have extracted a minimum of 100 t Au and 5 × 105 t Cu from the Mt. Pinatubo magma. Our data suggest that intrusives having adakitic signatures are genetically associated with Au-Cu and Cu-Mo mineralization, auriferous porphyry copper deposits, and epithermal gold veins. High H2O, Cl, Sr/Y, Pb/Ce, Mo/Ce, As/Ce and Sb/Ce in Mt. Pinatubo melts reflect the contribution of deep fluids derived from subducted sediments and altered MORBs in the dacite genesis. The slab-derived fluids carrying mobile elements are likely responsible for the enrichment of adakite magmas in gold, associated metals and H2O, and may explain the exceptional ore-forming potential of adakite magmatism.  相似文献   
7.
Wind power is a renewable energy resource, that has relatively cheap installation costs and it is highly possible that will become the main energy resource in the near future. Wind power needs to be integrated efficiently into electricity grids, and to optimize the power dispatch, techniques to predict the level of wind power and the associated variability are critical. Ideally, one would like to obtain reliable probability density forecasts for the wind power distributions. We aim at contributing to the literature of wind power prediction by developing and analysing a spatio-temporal methodology for wind power production, that is tested on wind power data from Denmark. We use anisotropic spatio-temporal correlation models to account for the propagation of weather fronts, and a transformed latent Gaussian field model to accommodate the probability masses that occur in wind power distribution due to chains of zeros. We apply the model to generate multi-step ahead probability predictions for wind power generated at both locations where wind farms already exist but also to nearby locations.  相似文献   
8.
Microscopic melt inclusions found in magmatic minerals are undoubtedly one of the most important sources of information on the chemical composition of melts. This paper reports on the successful application of near-infrared (NIR) femtosecond laser ablation (LA) - inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry to in situ determination of incompatible trace elements (Li, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, REE, Ta, Th, U) and ore metals (As, Mo, Pb) in individual melt inclusions hosted in quartz from the Mount Pinatubo dacites, Philippines. The determined elements cover a concentration range of five orders of magnitude. Femtosecond LA-ICP-MS analyses of twenty-eight individual melt inclusions demonstrate the efficiency of the microanalytical technique and suggests a spectacular homogeneity of the entrapped melt, at least with respect to the following incompatible trace elements: Rb, Sr, Nb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pb, Th. The analytical precision (1s) for Na, Ca, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, Ba and LREE ranged from 3 to 20%. Comparison of trace element concentrations in Mt. Pinatubo melt inclusions determined by femtosecond LA-ICP-MS with those of melt inclusions previously analysed by secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis (SIMS) and those of matrix glasses previously determined by nanosecond LA-ICP-MS showed an agreement typically within 30–40%. The homogeneity of trace element concentrations of the Mt. Pinatubo melt inclusions and the matrix glasses is consistent with the melt inclusion origin as homogeneous rhyolitic melt that was trapped in quartz phenocrysts at the final crystallisation stages of the host adakite (dacite) magma.  相似文献   
9.
Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment - Spatially distributed processes can be modeled as random fields. The complex spatial dependence is then incorporated in the joint probability...  相似文献   
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