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To describe temporal change in tafone development, an S‐shaped curve equation is proposed: Z = Zc [1 ? (n + 1) exp (? β t ) + n exp (? (1 + 1/n) β t )] , where Z is observed tafone depth, Zc is ultimate tafone depth, t is time, and n and β are constants. The applicability of this model is examined using tafone data selected from seven sites, which are categorized into three different salt‐weathering environments: a spray/splash‐dominant (occasionally wave‐affected) supra‐tidal zone, aerosol‐affected coastal regions, and inland desert areas. The results indicate that the equation can well describe tafone development in each of these environments. An investigation based on the values of n and β, determined through a best fit of the equation to the data, suggests that n characterizes site‐specific environmental conditions and β reflects the magnitude of factors controlling the recession mechanism of tafone surfaces. It is found that (1) the maximum rate of tafone growth dramatically decreases from supra‐tidal, through coastal, to desert environments, and (2) the growing mode of tafoni is different depending on the environmental settings. The erosional force to facilitate the development of tafoni at supra‐tidal sites is estimated to be about 400 times greater than that in the general coastal area. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
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Wave-tank studies were conducted on the measurement of the drift velocity at the breaking point under different types of breaking waves on a rigid, plane beach. The drift velocity has onshore direction near the surface and close to the bottom; in the main flow column, the drift velocity is always offshore. The offshore drift velocity shows a more uniform vertical distribution than that in the offshore region. The experimental data are compared with theoretical values of three different second-order constant-depth wave theories. Comparisons with data from other sources are also made. 相似文献
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Barchans, isolated crescent‐shaped bedforms, are believed to be formed under almost unidirectional wind or water ?ows and limited sand supply. The formation of barchan morphologies under the action of purely oscillatory wave motion has not yet been fully investigated. The present study attempted to form barchan topography in a wave ?ume and to compare this with barchans in the ?eld. Barchan morphologies of ripple size, called the barchan ripples, were generated from a ?at bed by the action of waves. The horn width, the distance between horn tips, of the barchan ripples increased linearly with an increase in the total length, the overall length projected on the centre line of the barchan, with a coef?cient common to barchan dunes in deserts. The ratio of horn length to horn width of the barchan ripples was smaller than that of barchan dunes, but similar to that of subaqueous barchans in the ?eld. The longer the wave period was, the larger the ratio of the body length to horn width became. Most subaqueous barchans formed under waves (in the laboratory) and unidirectional ?ows (in the ?eld) had blunter horns than subaerial barchans. The shape of the barchan ripples changed with wave period. The outer rim became rounder with increasing wave period. The relationship between the base area and the height of barchan morphologies seems to be linear, with a constant coef?cient for the scale from ripples to dunes. The barchan ripples showed a linear relationship between the height and the horn width, similar to that for barchan dunes. The migration speed of the barchan ripples was proportional to the cube of the ?ow velocity and was inversely proportional to height. The same relation with a different value of the coef?cient was obtained for barchan dunes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
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A wave‐?ume experiment was conducted to examine the formative condition for three types of distinctive bedforms that emerged through deformation of existing ripples due to waning wave power. They were ripple marks with: (1) a single secondary crest, (2) double secondary crests, and (3) a rounded crest. Data were analysed using two parameters, kh and d0/λ*, where k is the wave number, h is the water depth, d0 is the near‐bottom orbital diameter, and λ* is the spacing of existing ripples. The former quantity, kh, was employed as a surrogate for the degree of ?ow asymmetry. The result showed that ripples with secondary crests developed under a rather symmetrical ?ow ?eld with kh ? 0·7, if d0/λ* ? 1·2, whereas rounded‐crest ripples emerged under asymmetrical ?ow ?eld with kh ? 0·7, if d0/λ* ? ?2·9 kh + 3·2. The number of secondary crests, which initially occurred in each trough, was single if d0/λ* ? 0·8, or double if d0/λ* ? 0·8. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
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Laboratory experiments using a wave flume were designed to examine the threshold condition for ripple formation under asymmetrical oscillatory flows on an artificially roughened bed. Three types of sand beds were prepared in the experiments: they were flat, notched, and notch-mounded beds with bed roughness increasing in this order. The beds were constructed with three kinds of well-sorted sand with similar density, but different diameters. Data analyses were made using the two dimensionless parameters: the mobility number, M, a simplified form of the Shields number, and the Ursell number, U, a surrogate for asymmetry of flow field. The result confirmed that the threshold for ripple initiation is decreased with increasing bed perturbation and that as the bed perturbation increases, the dependency of this threshold on the flow asymmetry becomes less and finally null for the notch-mounded bed. This relationship is quantified by the following equations: M=17−14.5e−0.03U on the flat bed, M=5.0−2.5e−0.1U for the notched bed, and M=2.5 for the notch-mounded bed. A comparison between the previous field data and the present laboratory findings indicates that the threshold in the notch-mounded bed experiment, M=2.5, seems to provide a critical condition for rippling in the natural environment. 相似文献
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Tsuguo Sunamura 《地球表面变化过程与地形》1982,7(4):333-343
A laboratory experiment using a two-dimensional wave tank was designed to investigate the mechanism of erosion at a cliff base by waves armed with rock fragments. The experiment was performed under constant wave conditions by systematically changing the amount of beach sand at the foot of steep model cliffs of the same slope and strength. Cliff erosion occurred when the beach material at the cliff/beach junction was moved by waves. Turbulence created by bores rushing up on the beach mobilized the sand and exerted a mechanical shearing force on the cliff face using the sand as an abrasive. The analysis of results indicated that the effect of the abrasive doubled when the cliff/beach junction was located above Still Water Level (SWL) as compared to when it was below SWL. The assailing force of the sediment-laden water masses was proportional to the square of the bore speed immediately in front of the cliff face. The factor of proportionality is related to the quantity of beach sand entrapped in the turbulent fluid. 相似文献
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The purpose of the present study is to investigate the formation and planar shape of barchan ripples generated by laboratory unidirectional water currents and to compare the morphology with that of barchans formed by laboratory waves and flows in natural environments. A thin veneer of sand as a sediment source was placed initially at the upstream part of a recirculating flume and the change in bed configurations by the flow was recorded by a video camera. Two types of formative process were observed: one was that barchan ripples grew from barchanoid bedforms and the other was that they developed from a small aggregate of sand particles. The barchan ripples in the present test had the same characteristics in the height–width relation and in the migration speed as previously reported from the desert environment and wave‐flume studies. An examination of the planar shape of the barchans led to the result that the barchan ripples had larger values of body‐length/width, compared with those of barchans formed by water waves in the laboratory and by airflow in natural deserts. The horn‐length/width of the barchan ripples was smaller than that of barchan dunes in deserts but larger than that of barchans in oscillatory laboratory flows. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
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Shingo Kato Kurt Hara Hiroko Kasai Takashi Teramura Michinari Sunamura Jun-ichiro Ishibashi Takeshi Kakegawa Toshiro Yamanaka Hiroyuki Kimura Katsumi Marumo Tetsuro Urabe Akihiko Yamagishi 《Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers》2009,56(10):1844-1855
Spatial distribution, diversity, and composition of bacterial communities within the shallow sub-seafloor at the deep-sea hydrothermal field of the Suiyo Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, Western Pacific Ocean, were investigated. Fluids were sampled from four boreholes in this area. Each borehole was located near or away from active vents, the distance ranging 2–40 m from active vents. In addition, fluids discharging from a natural vent and ambient seawater were sampled in this area. We extracted DNA from each sample, amplified bacterial 16S rRNA genes by PCR, cloned the PCR products and sequenced. The total number of clones analyzed was 348. Most of the detected phylotypes were affiliated with the phylum Proteobacteria, of which the detection frequency in each clone library ranged from 84.6% to 100%. The bacterial community diversity and composition were different between hydrothermal fluids and seawater, between fluids from the boreholes and the vent, and even among fluids from each borehole. The relative abundances of the phylotypes related to Thiomicrospira, Methylobacterium and Sphingomonas were significantly different among fluids from each borehole. The phylotypes related to Thiomicrospira and Alcanivorax were detected in all of the boreholes and vent samples. Our findings provide insights into bacterial communities in the shallow sub-seafloor environments at active deep-sea hydrothermal vent fields. 相似文献
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A field investigation was carried out to collect data of inner bar migration. Profiles were measured once or twice a week for a two-year period at Naka Beach, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. It was found that the onshore migration of inner bars could be described by two dimensionless quantities as: where (Hb)max is the maximum value of daily average breaker height during one interval between surveys, Tmax is the average wave period of the day giving (Hb)max, D is the mean size of the beach sediment, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Analyses based on surfzone sediment dynamics yields , where is the average speed of onshore bar-migration, b is the bar height, is the average breaker height, and w is the fall velocity of the beach sediment. Nomographs for the speed of landward migrating bars are also presented. 相似文献