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Abstract Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) have been established under the Kyoto Protocol as project-based instruments to mitigate greenhouse gases of the industrialized countries to the levels imposed by their Kyoto commitments. An unresolved issue associated with the implementation of these two flexibility mechanisms, concerns the choice of the appropriate baseline for calculating the emission reductions in JI or CDM projects. This article describes a computerized tool that constructs and compares different types of standardized baselines and benchmarks. The analysis focuses on the suitability of several different types of benchmarks for assessing the emission reductions of certain types of projects. The analysis is also expanded into a discussion of the extent to which benchmarks reduce the crediting of non-additional projects and limit the risk of missed additional investments. This tool has been applied to actual JI and CDM projects in the Russian Federation and Indonesia. 相似文献
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We present Folder, a numerical toolbox for modelling deformation in layered media subject to layer parallel shortening or extension in two dimensions. The toolbox includes a range of features that ensure maximum flexibility to configure model geometry, define material parameters, specify numerical parameters, and choose the plotting options. Folder builds on an efficient finite element method model and implements state of the art iterative and time integration schemes. We describe the basic Folder features and present several case studies of single and multilayer stacks subject to layer parallel shortening and extension. Folder additionally comprises an application that illustrates various analytical solutions of growth rates calculated for the cases of layer parallel shortening and extension of a single layer with interfaces perturbed with a single sinusoidal waveform. We further derive two novel analytical expressions for the growth rate in the cases of layer parallel shortening and extension of a linear viscous layer embedded in a linear viscous medium of a finite thickness. These solutions help understand mechanical instabilities in layered rocks and provide a unique opportunity for benchmarking of numerical codes. We demonstrate how Folder can be used for benchmarking of numerical codes. We test the accuracy of single-layer folding simulations using various 1) spatial and temporal resolutions, 2) iterative algorithms for non-linear materials, and 3) time integration schemes. The accuracy of the numerical results is quantified by: 1) comparing them to analytical solutions, if available, or 2) running convergence tests. As a result, we provide a map of the most optimal choice of grid size, time step, and number of iterations to keep the results of the numerical simulations below a given error for a given time integration scheme. Folder is an open source MATLAB application and comes with a user-friendly graphical interface. Folder is suitable for both educational and research purposes. 相似文献
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