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1.
Effects of acidified seawater on calcification,photosynthetic efficiencies and the recovery processes from strong light exposure in the coral Stylophora pistillata 
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下载免费PDF全文 Takashi Nakamura Akira Iguchi Atsushi Suzuki Kazuhiko Sakai Yukihiro Nojiri 《Marine Ecology》2017,38(3)
The aim of this study was to investigate whether coral photosynthetic efficiencies and recovery processes are affected by CO2‐driven ocean acidification in symbiont photosynthesis and coral calcification. We investigated the effects of five CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) levels in adjusted seawater ranging from 300 μatm (pre‐industrial) to 800 μatm (near‐future) and strong and weak light intensity on maximum photosynthetic efficiency and calcification of a branching coral, Stylophora pistillata, as this species has often been used in rearing experiments to investigate the effects of acidified seawater on calcification and photosynthetic algae of corals. We found that, the photosynthetic efficiencies and recovery patterns under different light conditions did not differ among pCO2 treatments. Furthermore, calcification of S. pistillata was not affected by acidified seawater under weak or strong light conditions. Our results indicate that the photosynthetic efficiency and calcification of S. pistillata are insensitive to changes in ocean acidity. 相似文献
2.
Tropical coral reef coral patterns in Indonesian shallow water areas close to underwater volcanic vents at Minahasa Seashore,and Mahengetang and Gunung Api Islands 下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 Hedi I. Januar Neviaty P. Zamani Dedi Soedarma Ekowati Chasanah Anthony D. Wright 《Marine Ecology》2017,38(2)
Coral community patterns on some Indonesian reefs influenced by CO2 from underwater volcanic vents and nutrients from eutrophication pressures were examined. The overall aim of the study was to provide an insight into the significance of future ocean acidification compared to eutrophication pressures on tropical coral communities. Coral cover and seawater characteristics at acidified sites (with varied levels of eutrophication), i.e., moderate acidification (pH: 7.87 ± 0.04), low acidification (pH: 8.01 ± 0.04) and reference (pH: 8.2 ± 0.02), were observed at reefs associated with Minahasa Seashore, and Mahengetang and Gunung Api Islands. Results showed that coral community patterns varied among locations and acidified sites, e.g., domination of families such as Alcyoniidae, Acroporidae, Poritidae and Heliporidae, and with different levels of abiotic cover. Surprisingly, pH was not detected as the major determining factor. This finding probably relates to tropical seawater temperatures being high enough to still allow for aragonite deposition even at pH values down to 7.8. Nutrients (phosphate and dissolved inorganic nitrogen) were shown to be the main determining factors that influenced community patterns on the observed coral reefs. Overall, the results indicate that tropical coral reef community patterns will continue to vary as pH decreases to the predicted oceanic value of pH 7.8 over the next 100 years, and bio‐geo‐ecological characteristics and anthropogenic pressures will be the major factors determining Indonesian tropical coral community structure, compared to pH. 相似文献
3.
Ocean acidification damages calcareous organisms, such as calcifying algae, foraminifera, corals, and shells. In this study,
we made a device equipped with a Clark-type oxygen electrode and a pH-stat to examine how the most abundant calcifying phytoplankton,
the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi, responded to acidification and alkalization of the seawater medium. When E. huxleyi was incubated at pH 8.2, close to oceanic pH, the medium was alkalized during photosynthesis, and the alkalization rate [determined
as μmol HCl added (mg Chl)−1 h−1] was identical to the activity of photosynthesis [determined as μmol O2 evolved (mg Chl)−1 h−1]. When pH was maintained at 7.2 by the pH-stat, alkalization activity was stimulated and exceeded photosynthetic activity,
resulting in an increase in the ratio of alkalization to photosynthesis (Alk/PS). On the other hand, no alkalization and photosynthesis
were observed at pH 9.2. In contrast, acidification of seawater was observed in the dark because of the release of respiratory
CO2 from cells at pH 8.2–9.2, but not at pH 7.2. When orthophosphate was rapidly depleted within a day in the batch culture,
intracellular calcification gradually increased, and both photosynthesis and alkalization decreased gradually. During the
period the Alk/PS ratio also decreased gradually. These results indicate that E. huxleyi possesses an ability to compensate for the acidification of seawater when photosynthesis is more actively driven than respiration.
These results suggest that the E. huxleyi cells may not be severely damaged by oceanic acidification during photosynthesis because of their homeostatic function to
avoid negative effects on cellular activity. Finally, we concluded that E. huxleyi cells possess a buffering ability to reduce acidification effects when photosynthesis is actively driven. 相似文献
4.
We have investigated the effects of seawater acidification on the activities of leucine aminopeptidase (LAPase), β-glucosidase (BGase), phosphatase (P-ase), α-glucosidase (AGase), and lipase (L-ase), which are important promoters of degradation of marine organic matter, including
proteins, carbohydrates, organic phosphorus compounds, and lipids. Seawater samples were collected from a eutrophic coastal
area, from Tokyo Bay, and from oligotrophic pelagic waters outside the Kuroshio Current. Enzyme activities were measured using
fluorogenic substrates added to the seawater samples, which were acidified from pH 8.2 to 5.6 by a chemical buffer. Spontaneous
hydrolysis of the substrates was shown to be negligible in heat-inactivated control samples, thus validating our results.
LAPase was the most sensitive to acidification; enzyme activity rapidly decreased from pH 8.2 to 7.8, corresponding to a realistic
scenario of ocean acidification. L-ase activity also decreased with acidification. Activities of P-ase and BGase were relatively
constant across the pH levels examined, suggesting that their activity is not appreciably influenced by acidification. The
effect of acidification on P-ase activities differed between the coastal and semipelagic samples, and this was likely due
to freshwater influence at the nearshore station. Because of the low activity of AGase in the sample, the effect of acidification
on this enzyme could not be examined. The effects of acidification on enzyme activity appear to vary depending on enzyme type
and location, but we conclude that acidification will cause changes in the cycling of organic matter in marine ecosystems,
in particular to proteinous and lipid substances. 相似文献
5.
Riccardo Rodolfo‐Metalpa Chiara Lombardi Silvia Cocito Jason M. Hall‐Spencer Maria Cristina Gambi 《Marine Ecology》2010,31(3):447-456
There are serious concerns that ocean acidification will combine with the effects of global warming to cause major shifts in marine ecosystems, but there is a lack of field data on the combined ecological effects of these changes due to the difficulty of creating large‐scale, long‐term exposures to elevated CO2 and temperature. Here we report the first coastal transplant experiment designed to investigate the effects of naturally acidified seawater on the rates of net calcification and dissolution of the branched calcitic bryozoan Myriapora truncata (Pallas, 1766). Colonies were transplanted to normal (pH 8.1), high (mean pH 7.66, minimum value 7.33) and extremely high CO2 conditions (mean pH 7.43, minimum value 6.83) at gas vents off Ischia Island (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). The net calcification rates of live colonies and the dissolution rates of dead colonies were estimated by weighing after 45 days (May–June 2008) and after 128 days (July–October) to examine the hypothesis that high CO2 levels affect bryozoan growth and survival differently during moderate and warm water conditions. In the first observation period, seawater temperatures ranged from 19 to 24 °C; dead M. truncata colonies dissolved at high CO2 levels (pH 7.66), whereas live specimens maintained the same net calcification rate as those growing at normal pH. In extremely high CO2 conditions (mean pH 7.43), the live bryozoans calcified significantly less than those at normal pH. Therefore, established colonies of M. truncata seem well able to withstand the levels of ocean acidification predicted in the next 200 years, possibly because the soft tissues protect the skeleton from an external decrease in pH. However, during the second period of observation a prolonged period of high seawater temperatures (25–28 °C) halted calcification both in controls and at high CO2, and all transplants died when high temperatures were combined with extremely high CO2 levels. Clearly, attempts to predict the future response of organisms to ocean acidification need to consider the effects of concurrent changes such as the Mediterranean trend for increased summer temperatures in surface waters. Although M. truncata was resilient to short‐term exposure to high levels of ocean acidification at normal temperatures, our field transplants showed that its ability to calcify at higher temperatures was compromised, adding it to the growing list of species now potentially threatened by global warming. 相似文献
6.
Impacts of CO2-driven seawater acidification on survival, egg production rate and hatching success of four marine copepods 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Ecological experiments were conducted to examine the effects of seawater containing elevated par- tial pressure of carbon dioxide (p CO2 800 × 10 -6 , 2 000 × 10 -6 , 5 000 × 10 -6 and 10 000 × 10 -6 ) on the survival and reproduction of female Acartia pacifica, Acartia spinicauda, Calanus sinicus and Centropages tenuiremis, which are the dominant copepods in the southern coastal waters of China. The results show that the effects of elevated p CO2 on the survival rates of copepods were species-specific. C. sinicus, which was a macro-copepod, had a higher survival rate (62.01%-71.96%) than the other three species (5.00%-26.67%) during the eight day exposure. The egg production rates of C. sinicus, A. spinicauda and C. tenuiremis were significantly inhibited by the increased p CO2 and the exposure time duration. There were significantly negative impacts on the egg hatching success of A. spinicauda and C. tenuiremis in the p CO2 2 000 × 10 -6 and 10 000 × 10 -6 groups, and, in addition, the exposure time had noticeably impacts on these rates too. This study indicates that the reproductive performances of copepods were sensitive to elevated p CO2 , and that the response of different copepod species to acidified seawater was different. Furthermore, the synergistic effects of seawater acidification and climate change or other pollutant stresses on organisms should be given more attention. 相似文献
7.
Adaptive variability to low‐pH river discharges in Acartia tonsa and stress responses to high PCO2 conditions 下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 Victor M. Aguilera Cristian A. Vargas Marco A. Lardies María J. Poupin 《Marine Ecology》2016,37(1):215-226
Environmental transitions leading to spatial physical–chemical gradients are of ecological and evolutionary interest because they are able to induce variations in phenotypic plasticity. Thus, the adaptive variability to low‐pH river discharges may drive divergent stress responses [ingestion rates (IR) and expression of stress‐related genes such as Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) and Ferritin] in the neritic copepod Acartia tonsa facing changes in the marine chemistry associated to ocean acidification (OA). These responses were tested in copepod populations inhabiting two environments with contrasting carbonate system parameters (an estuarine versus coastal area) in the Southern Pacific Ocean, and assessing an in situ and 96‐h experimental incubation under conditions of high pressure of CO2 (PCO2 1200 ppm). Adaptive variability was a determining factor in driving variability of copepods' responses. Thus, the food‐rich but colder and corrosive estuary induced a traits trade‐off expressed as depressed IR under in situ conditions. However, this experience allowed these copepods to tolerate further exposure to high PCO2 levels better, as their IRs were on average 43% higher than those of the coastal individuals. Indeed, expression of both the Hsp70 and Ferritin genes in coastal copepods was significantly higher after acclimation to high PCO2 conditions. Along with other recent evidence, our findings confirm that adaptation to local fluctuations in seawater pH seems to play a significant role in the response of planktonic populations to OA‐associated conditions. Facing the environmental threat represented by the inter‐play between multiple drivers of climate change, this biological feature should be examined in detail as a potential tool for risk mitigation policies in coastal management arrangements. 相似文献
8.
We investigated the effects of seawater acidification induced by ocean CO2 sequestration on bathypelagic prokaryotes. We simulated acidification conditions by bubbling high-CO2 air or adding chemical buffer solutions to seawater samples in order to examine changes in total cell counts, heterotrophic
production rate, direct viable cell count, and relative abundance of Bacteria and Archaea. Considerable suppression of prokaryotic activities was observed at pH 7.0 or lower, especially in samples enriched with
organic matter. The relative abundance of Archaea increased with increasing CO2 concentration. We found that seawater acidification can potentially alter heterotrophic activities and community structure
of bathypelagic prokaryotes. 相似文献
9.
海水溶解有机物(dissolvedorganicmatter,DOM)中含有的生物活性物质在海洋生态系统中作用巨大,但因缺乏适合的分离提取方法而严重阻碍了对其不同组分在生态系统中作用的探索。固相萃取法对富集提取海水DOM十分有效,在用其提取海水DOM时,海水pH对活性物质提取效果的影响很大,但目前针对海水的这种影响尚存在很大争议。本文以天然近海海水作为基质,探究不同pH条件下用亲水-疏水平衡(hydrophilic-lipophilicbalanced,HLB)固相萃取小柱萃取海水中活性分子的提取效率,并使用高效液相色谱-四极杆飞行时间质谱(HPLC-Q-TOF-MS)在负离子(ESI-)模式下检测解析提取物的组成。研究结果表明,当海水样品pH为中性和强酸性时都能获得较好的提取效率,随着pH的降低,提取物质谱的整体响应值降低,但可识别的谱峰数目增加,提取出有机物的分子量和性质差异都更广泛。分析提取物分子在范克雷维伦(van Krevelen)图和质荷比-氢碳比(m/z-H/C)图上的分布发现,中性条件适合提取饱和度较高的小分子化合物,而具有生物活性的带有不饱和基团的化合物及蛋白质、糖类等生物大分子在强酸性提取条件时提取效果和分辨率更好。综合提取效率、有效峰数目和分子组成特征考虑,用HLB固相萃取小柱提取近海海水中的小分子活性物质时,将海水样品pH调节为2较为适宜。 相似文献
10.
Manabu Fujii Hiroaki Ito Andrew L. Rose T. David Waite Tatsuo Omura 《Marine Chemistry》2008,110(3-4):165-175
We have investigated the chemical forms, reactivities and transformation kinetics of Fe(III) species present in coastal water with ion exchange and filtration methods. To simulate coastal water system, a mixture of ferric iron and fulvic acid was added to filtered seawater and incubated for a minute to a week. At each incubation time, the seawater sample was acidified with hydrochloric acid and then applied to anion exchange resin (AER) to separate negatively charged species (such as fulvic acid, its complexes with iron and iron oxyhydroxide coated with fulvic acid) from positively charged inorganic ferric iron (Fe(III)′). By monitoring the acid-induced Fe(III)′ over an hour, it was found that iron complexed by fulvic acid dissociated rapidly to a large extent (86–92% at pH 2), whereas amorphous ferric oxyhydroxide particles associated with fulvic acid (AFO-L) dissociated very slowly with the first-order dissociation rate constants ranging from 6.1 × 10− 5 for pH 3 to 2.7 × 10− 4 s− 1 for pH 2. Therefore, a brief acidification followed by the AER treatment (acidification/AER method) was likely to be able to determine fulvic acid complexes and thus differentiate the complexes from the AFO-L particles (the dissolution of AFO-L was insignificant during the brief acidification). The acidification/AER method coupled with a simple filtration technique suggested that the iron–fulvic acid complexes exist in both the < 0.02 μm and 0.02–0.45 μm size fractions in our coastal water system. The truly dissolved iron (< 0.02 μm) was relatively long-lived with a life-time of 14 days, probably due to the complexation by strong ligands. Such an acid-labile iron may be an important source of bioavailable iron in coastal environments, as a significant relationship between the chemical lability and bioavailability of iron has been well recognised. 相似文献
11.
Biogeographic variability in the physiological response of the cold‐water coral Lophelia pertusa to ocean acidification 下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 Samuel E. Georgian Sam Dupont Melissa Kurman Adam Butler Susanna M. Strömberg Ann I. Larsson Erik E. Cordes 《Marine Ecology》2016,37(6):1345-1359
While ocean acidification is a global issue, the severity of ecosystem effects is likely to vary considerably at regional scales. The lack of understanding of how biogeographically separated populations will respond to acidification hampers our ability to predict the future of vital ecosystems. Cold‐water corals are important drivers of biodiversity in ocean basins across the world and are considered one of the most vulnerable ecosystems to ocean acidification. We tested the short‐term physiological response of the cold‐water coral Lophelia pertusa to three pH treatments (pH = 7.9, 7.75 and 7.6) for Gulf of Mexico (USA) and Tisler Reef (Norway) populations, and found that reductions in seawater pH elicited contrasting responses. Gulf of Mexico corals exhibited reductions in net calcification, respiration and prey capture rates with decreasing pH. In contrast, Tisler Reef corals showed only slight reductions in net calcification rates under decreased pH conditions while significantly elevating respiration and capture rates. These differences are likely the result of environmental differences (depth, pH, food supply) between the two regions, invoking the potential for local adaptation or acclimatization to alter their response to global change. However, it is also possible that variations in the methodology used in the experiments contributed to the observed differences. Regardless, these results provide insights into the resilience of L. pertusa to ocean acidification as well as the potential influence of regional differences on the viability of species in future oceans. 相似文献
12.
The absorption of anthropogenic CO2 and atmospheric deposition of acidity can both contribute to the acidification of the global ocean. Rainfall pH measurements and chemical compositions monitored on the island of Bermuda since 1980, and a long-term seawater CO2 time-series (1983–2005) in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean near Bermuda were used to evaluate the influence of acidic deposition on the acidification of oligotrophic waters of the North Atlantic Ocean and coastal waters of the coral reef ecosystem of Bermuda. Since the early 1980's, the average annual wet deposition of acidity at Bermuda was 15 ± 14 mmol m− 2 year− 1, while surface seawater pH decreased by 0.0017 ± 0.0001 pH units each year. The gradual acidification of subtropical gyre waters was primarily due to uptake of anthropogenic CO2. We estimate that direct atmospheric acid deposition contributed 2% to the acidification of surface waters in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean, although this value likely represents an upper limit. Acidifying deposition had negligible influence on seawater CO2 chemistry of the Bermuda coral reef, with no evident impact on hard coral calcification. 相似文献
13.
Agathe Laës Renaud Vuillemin Bernard Leilde Graldine Sarthou Claudie Bournot-Marec Stphane Blain 《Marine Chemistry》2005,97(3-4):347-356
A sensitive method for iron determination in seawater has been adapted on a submersible chemical analyser for in situ measurements. The technique is based on flow injection analysis (FIA) coupled with spectrophotometric detection. When direct injection of seawater was used, the detection limit was 1.6 nM, and the precision 7%, for a triplicate injection of a 4 nM standard. At low iron concentrations, on line preconcentration using a column filled with 8-hydroxyquinoline (8HQ) resin was used. The detection limit was 0.15 nM (time of preconcentration = 240 s), and the precision 6%, for a triplicate determination of a 1 nM standard, allowing the determination of Fe in most of the oceanic regimes, except the most depleted surface waters. The effect of temperature, pressure, salinity, copper, manganese, and iron speciation on the response of the analyser was investigated. The slope of the calibration curves followed a linear relation as a function of pressure (Cp = 2.8 × 10− 5P + 3.4 × 10− 2 s nmol− 1, R2 = 0.997, for Θ = 13 °C) and an exponential relation as a function of temperature (CΘ = 0.009e0.103Θ, R2 = 0.832, for P = 3 bar). No statistical difference at 95% confidence level was observed for samples of different salinities (S = 0, 20, 35). Only very high concentration of copper (1000 × [Fe]) produced a detectable interference. The chemical analyser was deployed in the coastal environment of the Bay of Brest to investigate the effect of iron speciation on the response of the analyser. Direct injection was used and seawater samples were acidified on line for 80 s. Dissolved iron (DFe, filtered seawater (0.4 μm), acidified and stored at pH 1.8) corresponded to 29 ± 4% of Fea (unfiltered seawater, acidified in line at pH 1.8 for 80 s). Most of Fea (71 ± 4%) was probably a fraction of total dissolvable iron (TDFe, unfiltered seawater, acidified and stored at pH 1.8). 相似文献
14.
15.
An increase in the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and the resultant rise in CO2 in seawater alter the inorganic carbon concentrations of seawater. This change, known as ocean acidification, ... 相似文献
16.
通过向水体中通入CO_2的方法模拟海洋酸化环境,测定青蛤(Cyclina sinensis)在酸化条件下各免疫指标的变化情况。结果显示:将青蛤置于酸化的海中(pH分别为7.4和7.7),并以自然海水做对照组(pH 8.1)后,血细胞总数随海水酸化胁迫时间的延长,表现为下降趋势,且差异显著(P0.05);海水pH降低抑制了溶菌酶的活性,但差异性不显著(P0.05);ACP活性总体呈下降趋势,对照组活性要高于酸化组,而ALP活性表现为上升趋势。酸化胁迫初期诱导SOD活性升高,后期SOD活性受到抑制,而CAT变化却截然相反;脂质过氧化产物MDA在酸化后期出现显著降低(P0.05)。 相似文献
17.
海水酸化暴露可对海洋生物产生多层面的影响。本研究以潮间带野生与潮下带养殖长牡蛎(不同生境背景)的不同组织(鳃、外套膜及消化腺)为研究对象,分析在室内调控p CO2模拟海水酸化暴露条件下,其基础代谢活动、能量代谢以及氧化应激相关指标的变化情况。结果显示:海水酸化暴露后,两种长牡蛎(Crassostrea gigas)的基础代谢过程均受到了一定抑制作用且受影响程度差异明显。潮间带野生与潮下带养殖长牡蛎的关键生理过程(能量代谢及氧化应激)对海水酸化暴露存在不同的响应变化,表明两种长牡蛎应对海水酸化的调节机制可能存在差异。依据PLS-DA分析结果显示,在所有生理指标中,对样本的差异贡献较高(VIP值1)的指标为:SDH、AST、ATPase、ATP含量、糖原含量、CAT、GST及SOD,表明海水酸化暴露后,在两种长牡蛎的3种组织中上述指标的响应变化程度更大。综合评价分析多个生理指标的整体变化揭示:在海水酸化暴露条件下,潮间带野生长牡蛎比潮下带养殖长牡蛎对海水酸化的生理响应更为剧烈;相比于鳃及消化腺组织,长牡蛎外套膜组织可能受影响更大。 相似文献
18.
Due to the elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide, ocean acidification(OA) has recently emerged as a research theme in marine biology due to an expected deleterious effect of altered seawater chemistry on calcification. A system simulating future OA scenario is crucial for OA-related studies. Here, we designed an OA-simulated system(OASys) with three solenoid-controlled CO2 gas channels. The OASys can adjust the pH of the seawater by bubbling CO2 gas into seawaters via feedback systems. The OASys is very simple in structure with an integrated design and is new-user friendly with the instruction. Moreover, the OASys can monitor and record real-time pH values and can maintain pH levels within 0.02 pH unit. In a 15-d experiment, the OASys was applied to simulate OA in which the expected target pH values were 8.00, 7.80 and 7.60 to study the calcifying response of Galaxea fascicularis. The results showed daily mean seawater pH values held at pH 8.00±0.01, 7.80±0.01 and 7.61±0.01 over15 d. Correspondingly, the coral calcification of G. fascicularis gradually decreased with reduced pH. 相似文献
19.
The influence of increased iron concentration on survival and growth of seedlings and young plants of eelgrass Zostera marina 下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 Iron (Fe) is an essential nutrient for plants but toxic at high concentrations. We subjected seedlings and young plants of eelgrass Zostera marina to different seawater iron concentrations (500, 600, 700, 800, 1,000 and 1,500 μg/L) for 30 days under controlled laboratory conditions. Natural seawater without added iron (500 μg/L) was used as reference seawater. No sediments were provided to avoid iron scavenging by particle surfaces in the sediment. We measured plant response in terms of survivorship, morphology, growth rate and productivity. Survival analysis combined with morphological, dynamic and productive assessment suggested that the optimum seawater iron concentration for the establishment of Z. marina seedlings and young plants is 700 μg/L. The no observed effect concentration, lowest observed effect concentration, lethal concentration that caused an increase in mortality to 10% of that of the control, and the effect concentration that caused a decrease in growth to 10% of that of the control values of young plants were significantly lower than those of seedlings, implying an increased sensitivity to high Fe concentrations (>1,000 μg/L). This study further develops our understanding of the physiological ecology of the early life stages of Z. marina and provides data that could prove helpful in the development of successful eelgrass restoration and conservation. 相似文献
20.
Ocean acidification results from an increase in the concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) impacts on marine calcifying species, which is predicted to become more pronounced in the future. By the end of this century, atmospheric pCO2 levels will have doubled relative to the pre‐industrial levels of 280 ppm. However, the effects of pre‐industrial pCO2 levels on marine organisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of pre‐industrial pCO2 conditions on the size of the pluteus larvae of sea urchins, which are known to be vulnerable to ocean acidification. The larval size of Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus significantly increased when reared at pre‐industrial pCO2 level relative to the present one, and the size of Anthocidaris crassispina larvae decreased as the pCO2 levels increased from the pre‐industrial level to the near future ones after 3 days' exposure. In this study, it is suggested that echinoid larvae responded to pre‐industrial pCO2 levels. Ocean acidification may be affecting some sensitive marine calcifiers even at the present pCO2 level. 相似文献