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1.
This paper presents an historical and in places informal account of the meltwater hypothesis, which invokes enormous outburst floods for the formation of subglacial bedforms. It begins with a brief discussion of the difficulties of determining processes of formation for landforms, which are not seen in formation. Analogy provides a solution to these difficulties. Analogy between erosional marks at the bases of turbidites and drumlins, which were the starting point for this hypothesis, rests on the idea that inverted erosional marks at the ice bed are subsequently infilled to form drumlins. Field tests on the sedimentology, architecture, and landform associations of drumlins in the Livingstone Lake drumlin field are outlined before more extensive work on bedrock erosional forms and flood routes is introduced. Bedrock erosional forms played a central part in establishing the hypothesis since their form and ornamentation are confidently interpreted as fluvial. Their form and genesis are discussed mainly with reference to sites at French River and Wilton Creek, Ontario, though some remarkable bedrock erosional forms in Antarctica support their regional extent. Initially in the meltwater hypothesis, drumlins were thought to be cavity fills and erosional drumlins were recognized later. This development is shown to be central to the realization that drumlin composition may be inferred from drumlin form. The scale of drumlin fields, measured at about 103 km2, and the magnitude of the inferred floods require that the flood events were regional. Regional-scale flood tracts in Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and the Northwest Territories extending over 1000 km in length and several hundred kilometers in width, support this suggestion. Floods, had they occurred, would have caused rapid rates of sea level rise and may have changed climate through their effects on ocean stratification and sea surface temperatures. The meltwater hypothesis covers a range of bedforms besides drumlins and bedrock erosional marks—fluting, Rogen moraine, hummocky terrain, and transverse ridges. Recent work shows how these forms are best explained by the meltwater hypothesis. The roles of water storage and release, which underpin the theory of the meltwater hypothesis, remain poorly understood. 相似文献
2.
Bars are widely thought to be large sediment bodies formed under sediment supply. Nevertheless, little has been known on how they form in sediment scouring processes. In this study, we carried out a flume experiment to study the formation of bars without sediment supply. The experiment was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the discharge was successively increased; in each discharge step, the disturbance from upstream and downstream boundaries had little influence on the flow. We observed that no bars formed in this stage. In the second stage, we kept a small discharge at the flume inlet. In this stage, the bars emerged from the fluctuated bed topography with millimeter-scale bed forms by headcut initiated from the outlet. As the headcut migrated upstream, the accompanying undercut gradually forced the unconfined flow run into the low-elevation zone, lowering the water level and inducing the outcrop of regions free from the incision (i.e., bars). At the end of the experiment, a relatively stable topography formed under the joint effect of the upstream migrating headcut, the following undercut after the headcut and the lateral erosion on the emerged bars. The requirements for the formation of bars and the distinctive characteristics of the bars induced by headcut were investigated. This study shows that bars can form in a scouring process under appropriate conditions, and the headcut may be one of the precipitating factors for the formation of bars in natural rivers. 相似文献
3.
I. P. MARTINI 《Sedimentology》1977,24(5):603-622
In May 1974 a powerful flood flushed the Grand River basin, Ontario. The effects on the bedload were drastic in a narrow (30 m) and deep (40 m) rock walled and floored gorge near Elora, Ontario. Along Irvine Creek, the tributary occupying the gorge, the gravel cover was reworked in several types of bars, predominantly transverse and point bars. The bars formed very rapidly in response to essentially steady, non-uniform flow that developed during a brief period of high flood. Superimposed on major bars are several minor sedimentary features such as coarse transverse ribs, chute channels and bars, longitudinal ribs, imbrication clusters, backsets with well developed imbrication, that were formed under very high stream discharge. Structures like imbrication clusters, transverse ribs and small riffle bars require a ‘live bed’ situation to form, and they develop when stones come to a stop either because they cluster during transport, or because keystone effects occur along shallow channels. In Irvine Creek, very few sedimentary features were formed during waning and low flood stages: only some shadow deposits and a few Ostler lenses. The few fines that were available were lost downstream or filled in lower parts of gravel beds. This study confirms that in streams that experience strong seasonal fluctuations in discharge, bedforms that develop during high floods have a high probability of preservation. In gravelly deposits, foreset structures and plane beds are most commonly preserved, although they may be difficult to recognize in old deposits, which may appear massive, particularly if the gravel has been infilled with finer pebbles and sand. In the case of Irvine Creek, all deposits are organized, and lateral and vertical variations in textures, particularly imbrication and packing, are very useful in the recognition of sedimentary structures. 相似文献
4.
J. R. L. ALLEN 《Sedimentology》1980,27(3):317-323
Theoretical work, laboratory studies, and field observations indicate that the oscillatory boundary layers generated by the tidal wave differ fundamentally in dynamics and kinematic structure from the unidirectional boundary layers of rivers. Unique to the former are mass-transport currents attributable to: (1) the wave motion itself, and (2) bed curvature in the presence of the oscillatory flow. The implication of this difference for bed-material transport is that the larger flow-transverse bedforms of shallow-water environments are divisible hydraulically between two major classes: (A) those related to tidal conditions, under which the fluid reverses in direction of flow with each reversal of the tide, permitting the initiation and maintenance of bed features by the spatially reversing, curvature-related mass transport, and (B) those related strictly to rivers and river-like flows, in which the fluid motion is unidirectional, and therefore the only mechanisms available for bedform initiation and maintenance are those creating a finite spatial lag between the transport rate and the bed waviness. Forms of Class B are best called dunes and bars, and only those attributable to Class A should be termed sand waves. The latter, restricted to oscillatory boundary layers of tidal origin, apparently correspond to the very much smaller; but also commonly symmetrical, ripple marks produced in wind-wave oscillatory boundary layers. 相似文献
5.
J. A. MILNE 《Sedimentology》1982,29(2):267-278
Relationships between the bed-material size distribution and riffle-pool geometry of a small coarse-bedload upland stream channel are described. Downstream sequences of bed-material size are highly variable, although series analysis reveals some persistence in the data over short distances. Cross-correlation of bed-material series with bed-elevation series indicates riffles tend to coincide with coarser bed material sequences. Comparison of the bed-material size distributions of individual riffles, pools and bars is, however, more revealing. Mean particle size was found to be the most useful criterion for distinguishing between bed forms, and in these terms bars are the most distinctive features. Moreover, riffles and pools can be viewed as simply downstream oscillations in elevation of a single coarser-grained sedimentary unit. Coarse sediment supply from erosion scars created where the channel meets confining bluffs in valley-fill deposits does mean that the average particle size of adjacent and downstream bed forms is increased. However, conclusions remained unchanged after reanalysis following the identification and subtraction of immobile particle diameters. Plan geometry and coarse sediment supply in the upland environment are also shown to influence bed-material size distributions. Tightly curved pools tend to have the finest pool sediments but also the least difference between bar and pool sediments. Size of material in pools is also negatively related to an index of cross-section asymmetry. 相似文献
6.
THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF BED-FORM HIERARCHIES 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
J. R. L. ALLEN 《Sedimentology》1968,10(3):161-182
The bed forms generated by liquid flows over loose-grain boundaries assume only two orientations relative to flow, being either transverse or longitudinal, but range enormously in physical scale. Two types of bed form, current ripples and parting lineations, take a characteristic length (2) which is independent of boundary conditions as expressed by flow depth (d). We have that: λL≤ 0.025 m (parting lineations) λR≤ 0.60 m (ripples). The characteristic length of other kinds of bed form is correlated with flow depth, according to the equations: λD= 1.16D1.1.55 (dunes) λA 6.3d (antidunes, Fr = 1.0) λSR= 1.35d1.31 (sand ribbons) λM - 672d1.11 (meander bars) λT= 116d2 (tidal current ridges) From these relationships can be deduced the compositions of theoretical hierarchies of bed forms, where a hierarchy is defined as a series of bed forms graded as to size which in combination are adapted to a single overall flow condition. The compositions of these hierarchies, which are closely matched by naturally occurring hierarchies, are broadly related to available flow depth, general flow conditions (lower or upper regime), and availability of sediment. Bed forms are considered to be due to unstable interactions between the bed material and the over-bed flow, of liquid or grains or both. Hierarchies of bed forms arise because the quantities determining the flow are suficiently numerous that several mutually unstable combinations can exist, each combination being expressed in terms of a bed form of a characteristic physical scale and orientation relative to flow. 相似文献
7.
《Sedimentology》2018,65(2):492-516
Pre‐vegetation fluvial channels have long been considered predominantly sheet‐like in geometry, owing to hydraulic sections that rapidly widened rather than incise during floods. This motif has been paralleled to that of modern dryland rivers subject to sharp discharge fluctuations during ephemeral floods. However, a number of Precambrian fluvial successions have been recently appraised as the product of deep‐channelled systems characterized by relatively stable – probably perennial – discharge regimes. One such example is the ca 1·0 Ga Applecross Formation, part of the well‐studied Torridon Group of Scotland. To contribute to this debate and to provide refined morphodynamic models for the Applecross Formation, this article presents an integration of three‐dimensional photogrammetry and outcrop sedimentology applied to key exposures at Stoer Peninsula, north‐western Scottish Highlands. Analysis of selected sandbodies reveals that high‐relief fluvial sand bars, both mid‐channel and bank‐attached, evolved within deep, braided‐channel belts. These bars grew through complex mechanisms of accretion and reactivation related to different flood stages: upstream and downstream accretion probably occurred during waning‐flood stages characterized by high hydrograph levels and abundant sediment availability; lateral accretion took place during later waning‐flood stages, and it was associated in some cases with helical recirculation and increase in bend sinuosity. Overall, the depicted morphodynamics are consistent with prolonged flood events that cannot be reconciled with sharply fluctuating discharge regimes. Critical comparisons between the internal geometry of the studied bars and modern counterparts corroborate the findings herein. Thus, this study recommends stricter comparisons between the products of modern braided channels and Precambrian fluvial rock records featuring thick and well‐developed bar forms. 相似文献
8.
Natural Hazards - As a result of the massive deforestation and windfalling in Romania last year, catastrophic floods frequently occur with historic high-water marks only to be registered every 500... 相似文献
9.
为深入认识非恒定流驱动下床面形态的演变规律及尺度变化趋势,采用水泵控制系统生成了一系列历时与洪峰流量不同的洪水过程来冲刷由粗沙组成的实验动床（中值粒径d50=1.95 mm）,研究中运用非恒定流的形态、非恒定性及水流做功参数来量化洪水过程;统计分析河床高程数据得到床面形态的波长、波高及陡度。实验结果表明:在不同尺度的非恒定流洪水作用下,实验动床表面分别形成了沙垄、交错边滩以及介于两者之间的过渡型床面形态;洪水的非恒定性对床面形态尺度的影响最大,其次是水流做功参数,而非恒定流的形态影响较为微弱;在此基础上构建了用于描述非恒定流驱动条件与床面形态尺度响应的定量关系。 相似文献
10.
The response of subaqueous dunes to floods in sand and gravel bed reaches of the Dutch Rhine 总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4
Abstract The branches of the River Rhine in the Netherlands, characterized by a sand–gravel bed in the upstream part and a sand bed in the downstream part of the river system, show migrating dunes, especially during floods. In the last 20 years, these dunes have been studied extensively. High-resolution echo-sounding measurements of these dunes, made with single and multibeam equipment, were analysed for three different sections of the Rhine river system during several floods. This analysis was done to quantify the growth, decay and migration rates of the dunes during floods. In addition, the migrating dunes were used to calculate bedload transport rates with dune tracking. The results of dune growth and decay and migration rate are shown to be very different for the various sections during the various floods, and these differences are related to differences in grain size of the bed and to differences in the distribution of discharge over the main channel and the floodplain. The relations are used to show that the growth and migration rate of dunes, and the calculated bedload transport rates during the rising stage of a flood wave can be predicted from the mobility of the bed material with simple power relations. 相似文献
11.
《Sedimentology》2018,65(3):702-720
Gravel‐bed rivers can accommodate changes in sediment supply by adjusting their bed topography and grain size in both the downstream and cross‐stream directions. Under high supply aggradational conditions, this can result in spatially non‐uniform stratigraphic patterns, and the morphodynamic influence of heterogeneous stratigraphy during subsequent degradational periods is poorly understood and has not been studied through physical modelling. A flume experiment was conducted to analyse channel response where alternate bars were developed in a gravel–sand mixture under constant discharge and sediment supply before two supply increases led to the development of heterogeneous stratigraphy beneath alternate bars. The supply was then reduced back to the initial supply rate, causing degradation through that self‐formed stratigraphy. Stratigraphic samples were collected, and the bed topography and flow depth were measured frequently, which were used with a two‐dimensional hydrodynamic model to characterize flow conditions. Migrating alternate bars stabilized during the first equilibrium phase, creating bed surface sorting patterns of coarse bar tops and fine pools. During the first supply increase, the bars remained stable as the pools aggraded. During the second supply increase, the pools aggraded further, causing the boundary shear stress over the bar tops to increase until the bars gained the capacity to migrate and eventually stabilize in new locations. As aggradation occurred, the original sediment sorting patterns were preserved in the subsurface. During the degradational phase, the pools experienced incision and the bars eroded laterally, but this lateral erosion ceased when coarse sediment previously deposited during the bar‐building phase became exposed. The results suggest that if a sediment supply increase is capable of filling the pools, it can cause stable bars to migrate and the bed to be reworked. These findings also show that heterogeneous stratigraphy can play an important role in determining whether bars persist or disappear after a sediment supply reduction. 相似文献
12.
ROSCOE G. JACKSON II 《Sedimentology》1976,23(5):593-623
Largescale ripples in the meandering lower Wabash River of Illinois and Indiana, U.S.A., include scroll bars and three dunelike bed forms (dunes, sand waves, and transverse bars). Scroll bars are lobate crested, asymmetrical in stream-wise vertical profile, usually solitary, and oriented approximately normal to local channel strike. They form by passive flow expansion downchannel from locally emergent topographic highs, face and lie near inner banks of meander bends, enjoy a high preservation potential as leveelike ridges of ridge-and-swale topography, and migrate only during relatively low stream discharges, when water depth over bar crests is less than 0·5 m. Dunes correspond to dunes of the flow-regime classification and rarely are solitary or superimposed. Sand waves may be symmetrical or asymmetrical, are always superimposed by dunes, occur in depths greater than 4 m and in bed material coarser than 1 mm mean size, and develop at bankfull and flood flows. Transverse bars migrate in depths less than 5 m in straight reaches and near inner banks of bends, display crestal dunes, and correspond to the bars of Costello (1974) and to the sand waves of Boothroyd (1969). Hydrodynamic regimes of scroll bars and transverse bars differ from that of dunes. The omnipresence of dunes upon stoss-sides of sand waves confirms the existence of an equilibrium superimposition of dunelike largescale ripples. Depth-velocity-size diagrams appear to be a valid representation of empirical stability fields of dunelike largescale ripples in deep unsteady nonuniform aqueous flows. Stability fields of dunes and sand waves overlap greatly. Velocity profiles demonstrate an absence of leeside flow separation over dunes and an appearance (rare) over transverse bars only when the ratio of trough depth to crest depth exceeds two. Dune stratification displays (1) largescale trough cross-strata, (2) thinning of sets as bed-material size increases, and (3) an orientation within 20° of local channel strike. Transverse bars show avalanche sets up to 2 m thick, with reactivation surfaces. Scroll bars display thick avalanche sets separated by reactivation structures consisting of erratically oriented smallscale trough cross-strata. Avalanche sets of scroll bars and of transverse bars are oriented 50–150° from and within 50° of, respectively, local channel strike. 相似文献
13.
Evolution and mechanics of a Miocene tidal sandwave 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
A remarkable exposure of Miocene marine molasse in western Switzerland records the evolution of a tidal sandwave over a period of approximately 2 1/2 months. The sandwave is composed of tidal ‘bundles’ in which a sandwave reactivation stage and full vortex stage can be recognized for the dominant flow (ebb tide) and a rippled flood apron overlain by high water drape for the reversed flow. Bundle thicknesses vary systematically through neap–spring cycles, with a periodicity of 27 demonstrating the semi-diurnal lunar control of sedimentation. Waves were an additional component, especially when superimposed on flood tides, producing near-symmetrical combined-flow ripple marks in the flood apron. Tidal current velocities are estimated using critical shear velocities for entrainment, the ripple-dune transition and the dune-plane bed transition. Using appropriate estimates of roughness lengths and a logarithmic velocity law, maximum tidal speeds at 1 m above the bed were approximately 0·6 m sec?1 for ebbs and up to 0·5 m sec?1 for floods. The enhancement by waves of bed shear stress (τwc/τ of approximately 2 for 1 m high waves) under flood currents implies flood tidal velocities closer to 0·2–0·3 m sec?1. Peak instantaneous bedload sediment transport rates using a modified Bagnold equation are nearly 5 times greater under ebb tides than floods. The average net sediment transport rate at springs (0·04 kg m?1 sec?1) is over 10 times greater than at neaps (0·002 kg m?1 sec?1). Comparison with transport rates in modern tidal environments suggests that the marine molasse of Switzerland was deposited under spatially confined and relatively swift tidal flows not dissimilar to those of the present Dutch tidal estuaries. 相似文献
14.
J.R.L. Allen 《Earth》1974,10(4):263-342
Natural sedimentary systems are process-response systems in which hierarchical configurations on the sedimentary surface are given character, maintained and translated because some of the energy supply is expended, that expenditure resulting in material transfers and transports. The energy supply to most types of system generally varies on several different time scales. Consequently, a complex of reaction and relaxation effects marks the operation of these systems, the equilibrium of which can be defined only in terms of explicit time scales. Mathematically, the existence of these lag effects introduces non-uniqueness into the operation of natural systems, which is best represented and assessed in terms of phase diagrams.
Many aspects of the behaviour of natural systems are in conformity with this theoretical model. The transport of suspended sediment in rivers and tidal flows ordinarily differs in phase from the aqueous discharge. Bed forms in tidal and river currents lag the changing flow conditions, by extents to a modest degree predictable by the model. Lag effects also mark wave-dominated sedimentary environments. Spatial lag effects, in which flow properties differ in phase from bed configurations, are critical to the dynamics of many kinds of bed form, including dunes, flute marks, and stream meanders.
The ubiquity of lag effects, and the multiple time-scales of natural sedimentary systems, call into question aspects of current practice in the study of sedimentary environments and, as well, much of the way in which experimental and analytical studies are designed and used in sedimentology. 相似文献
15.
砂质辫状河内部不同级次的构型模式,特别是心滩坝及其内部夹层的构型特征尤为重要,直接控制了油田开发中后期剩余油富集与分布。采取现代地质调查与地下地质解剖相结合的思路,以渤海海域P油田为例,分别从辫流带、心滩坝及心滩坝内部夹层三个级次,探讨了砂质辫状河构型特征及其对剩余油分布规律的影响。结果表明砂质辫状河道具有三种充填样式,且以砂质充填为主,心滩坝与辫状河道呈"宽坝窄河道"的分布样式;坝内落淤层具有穹窿式和水平式两种分布样式。此外,从5级至3级构型单元逐步细分,通过三种识别标志划分单一辫流带,平均宽厚比约178;心滩坝辫状河道宽度与心滩坝宽度比约为1:3.8,心滩坝宽度与长度比约为1:2.2;心滩坝内部单期落淤层近水平分布,多期之间互相平行,一般2~4个。不同级次储层构型要素对剩余油分布的控制存在差异性。对于辫流带级次,层间隔层直接控制剩余油分布;心滩坝级次泥质半充填河道底部砂体连通,侧翼上部水淹程度较低,剩余油富集;受落淤层和物性界面的影响,心滩坝内部剩余油主要呈"分段式"富集在落淤层下方垂积体的顶部和水驱较弱的边部。该成果在油田老区综合调整方案和新区开发方案设计上得到了应用,也在调整井部署,尤其是水平井挖潜剩余油等方面,提供了地质依据。 相似文献
16.
西秦岭上三叠统浊积岩系中波痕的主要特征及其成因探讨 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
西秦岭上三叠统为一套半深海环境中形成的陆源碎屑浊积岩系，于该该积岩系中发现了大量的波痕。本文详细研究了这些波痕的形态特征及其与鲍马尾序和浊积岩相组合的关系。研究结果表明这些波痕是浊流演化过程中转化而来的牵引流作用于底部床沙形成的。 相似文献
17.
古堰塞湖溃决洪水事件的重建是当前地学研究的热点问题之一,寻找足够的可参考的现代溃决洪水事件案例是顺利开展这项工作的基础。2018年11月13日发生在金沙江干流的白格堰塞湖超万年一遇的溃决洪水事件(学术界称之为“11·3”白格堰塞湖溃决洪水事件)就是一个难得的样本。这次溃决事件发生在枯水期,洪峰完全由溃决洪水产生,没有叠加其他来源,对评估流域地貌和沉积体系对堰塞溃决事件的响应有很好的参考价值。本文以溃决洪水事件受灾最为严重的奔子栏—石鼓段为研究区,通过详细的野外调查和初步的水力学估算发现“11·3”白格堰塞湖溃决洪水事件在奔子栏—石鼓段的地貌作用主要表现为洪水淹没区的岸坡塌岸和沉积物堆积,未发现明显的基岩侵蚀。沉积物主要由分选良好的具水平纹层的砂组成。受金沙江较低的河床比降影响,洪水产生的基底剪切应力较弱在27~142 N/m2,不能悬浮和搬运直径5 cm以上的砾石,也不能产生明显的磨蚀和冲(撞)击作用。在发生塌岸的部分段落,洪水沉积物中有砾石坠入,甚至会出现类似浊流沉积的层序。这些现象的发现对深入理解堰塞湖溃决洪水的复杂地貌过程和沉积特征有重要参考意义。 相似文献
18.
Morphology and evolution of bars in a wandering gravel-bed river; lower Fraser river, British Columbia, Canada 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
STEPHEN P. RICE MICHAEL CHURCH§ COLIN L. WOOLDRIDGE† EDWARD J. HICKIN‡ 《Sedimentology》2009,56(3):709-736
A hierarchical typology for the channels and bars within aggradational wandering gravel-bed rivers is developed from an examination of a 50 km reach of lower Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada. Unit bars, built by stacking of gravelly bedload sheets, are the key dynamic element of the sediment transfer system, linking sediment transport during individual freshets to the creation, development and remoulding of compound bar platforms that have either a lateral or medial style. Primary and secondary unit bars are identified, respectively, as those that deliver sediment to compound bars from the principal channel and those that redistribute sediment across the compound bar via seasonal anabranches and smaller channels. The record of bar accretion evident in ground-penetrating radar sequences is consistent with the long-term development of bar complexes derived from historical aerial photographs. For two compound bars, inter-annual changes associated with individual sediment transport episodes are measured using detailed topographic surveys and longer-term changes are quantified using sediment budgets derived for individual bars from periodic channel surveys. Annual sediment turnover on the bars is comparable with the bed material transfer rate along the channel, indicating that relatively little bed material bypasses the bars. Bar construction and change are accomplished mainly by lateral accretion as the river has limited capacity to raise bed load onto higher surfaces. Styles of accretion and erosion and, therefore, the major bar form morphologies on Fraser River are familiar and consistent with those in gravelly braided channels but the wandering style does exhibit some distinctive features. For example, 65-year histories reveal the potential for long sequences of uninterrupted accretion in relatively stable wandering rivers that are unlikely in braided rivers. 相似文献
19.
采用浑水控制方程,建立了基于耦合解法的一维非恒定非均匀沙数学模型,用于模拟高含沙洪水演进时的河床冲淤过程.然后采用黄河下游游荡段1977年7—8月实测高含沙洪水资料对该模型进行率定,基于水沙耦合解法的各水文断面流量、总含沙量及分组含沙量的计算过程与实测过程符合更好,计算的沿程最高水位及累计河段冲淤量与实测值也较为符合.最后还采用2004年8月高含沙洪水资料对该模型进行了验证.模型率定及验证计算结果表明,采用一维水沙耦合模型计算高含沙洪水过程,能取得较高的精度. 相似文献
20.
Ancient marine organisms that excavated holes in shells and other calcium carbonate substrates on the sea bed have not been widely studied by palaeontologists. Together with scrape and scratch marks made by rasping grazers on shell surfaces, they constitute a group of hard–substrate trace fossils that have many modern equivalents. Even the smallest forms can be studied by casting the holes in plastic resin and dissolving the shell. The variety of borers increased in the Mesozoic Era, thereby avoiding the attentions of predatory groups that were radiating at the same time. 相似文献