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1.
A model was developed for the mass distribution of fragments that are ejected at a given velocity for impact and explosion craters. The model is semiempirical in nature and is derived from (1) numerical calculations of cratering and the resultant mass versus ejection velocity, (2) observed ejecta blanket particle size distributions, (3) an empirical relationships between maximum ejecta fragment size and crater diameter, (4) measurements of maximum ejecta size versus ejecta velocity, and (5) an assumption on the functional form for the distribution of fragments ejected at a given velocity. This model implies that for planetary impacts into competent rock, the distribution of fragments ejected at a given velocity is broad; e.g., 68% of the mass of the ejecta at a given velocity contains fragments having a mass less than 0.1 times a mass of the largest fragment moving at that velocity. Using this model, we have calculated the largest fragment that can be ejected from asteroids, the Moon, Mars, and Earth as a function of crater diameter. The model is unfortunately dependent on the size-dependent ejection velocity limit for which only limited data are presently available from photography of high explosive-induced rock ejecta. Upon formation of a 50-km-diameter crater on an atmosphereless planet having the planetary gravity and radius of the Moon, Mars, and Earth, fragments having a maximum mean diameter of ≈30, 22, and 17 m could be launched to escape velocity in the ejecta cloud. In addition, we have calculated the internal energy of ejecta versus ejecta velocity. The internal energy of fragments having velocities exceeding the escape velocity of the moon (～2.4 km/sec) will exceed the energy required for incipient melting for solid silicates and thus, the fragments ejected from Mars and the Earth would be melted.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract— Oblique impact cratering experiments into gypsum targets were performed, and masses and velocities of the fragments were measured within the observational limit of 0.1–100 m/s in velocity and 0.0003–1 g in mass. The fragments observed were divided in two groups according to ejection time: early fragments ejected conically within a few msec after the impact followed by late fragments consisting of hundreds of slow, small fragments ejected almost perpendicular to the target. The relationship between mass and velocity of early fragments was observed to follow a power law with an exponent of ?0.11 ± 0.06, consistent with previous studies (e.g., Nakamura and Fujiwara 1991; Giblin et al. 1998). The cumulative number of fragments heavier or equal to a given mass versus fragment mass distributions shows a power law exponent of ?1.49 ± 0.09 for late fragments and steeper than ?0.49 ± 0.18 for early fragments. More than 10% of the mass was ejected from the crater with ejection speed slower than 2 m/s. Those fragments will reaccumulate on porous (<1500 kg/m3) and small (<4 km in diameter) asteroids.  相似文献   

3.
Launch of martian meteorites in oblique impacts   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
A high-velocity oblique impact into the martian surface accelerates solid target material to escape velocity. A fraction of that material eventually falls as meteorites on Earth. For a long time they were called the SNC meteorites (Shergotty, Nakhla, and Chassigny). We study production of potential martian meteorites numerically within the frame of 3D hydrodynamic modeling. The ratio of the volume of escaping solid ejecta to projectile volume depends on the impact angle, impact velocity and the volatile content in the projectile and in the target. The size distribution of ejected fragments appears to be of crucial importance for the atmosphere-ejecta interaction in the case of a relatively small impact (with final crater size <3 km): 10-cm-sized particles are decelerated efficiently, while 30-50% of larger fragments could escape Mars. The results of numerical modeling are compared with shock metamorphic features in martian meteorites, their burial depth, and preatmospheric mass. Although it is impossible to accelerate ejected fragments to escape velocity without substantial compression (above 10 GPa), the maximum temperature increase in dunite (Chassigny) or ortopyroxenite (ALH84001) may be lower than 200 degree. This result is consistent with the observed chaotic magnetization of ALH84001. The probability of microbes' survival may be rather high even for the extreme conditions during the ejection process.  相似文献   

4.
The 455 Ma old Lockne crater in central Sweden is a well-preserved and accessible instance of marine impact crater. The process of formation of the over 7 km wide crater (referred to as inner crater) in crystalline Proterozoic basement is numerically modeled under the assumption of a 45° oblique impact of an asteroid-like impactor. The 3D version of the SOVA multi-material hydrocode is used to model the shock wave propagation through the target, transient crater growth, material ejection in water and basement target, and water and fragmented rock ejecta expansion. The model results in a crater formation with the greatest ejection and melting transferred in the downrange direction. The model reproduces the growth of the water crater accompanied by the growth of a “wall” of ejected water at its outer margin. The basement ejecta are mostly trapped in this transient “water wall”. Only the largest ejected rock fragments could break through this water wall and thus reach distances farther than about 6 km from the center of the target. The model predicts approximately of impact melt formation, less than 10% of which is ejected outside of the inner (basement) crater, whereas the rest is reckoned to have remained within the inner crater. We assume that most of the ejected melt occurs as sand-sized fragments in the resurge sediments that formed subsequent to the collapse of the water crater that resulted in the powerful backflow of water. The model results are in accordance with several important details of the known geology of the crater. The model also outlines the difference in the marine crater formation processes in contrast to a crater with similar size formed on land.  相似文献   

5.
Hypervelocity microparticle impact experiments were performed with a 2 MV Van De Graaff dust accelerator. From measurements of the light intensity I and the total light energy E, the relations I=c1mv4.1 and E=c2mv3.2 were obtained, where m is the projectile mass, ν the projectile velocity and c1,c2 are constants, depending on projectile and target material. Using the measured values of the spectral distribution of the light emitted during impact, the temperature of the radiating material was estimated to be between 2500 and 5000 K depending on the projectile velocity. From an analysis of these measurements the angular distribution of secondary particle velocities as well as the relative mass distribution of these particles was determined. Approximately 90% of the detected ejecta mass (ν?1 km/sec) is found between 50° and 70° ejection angle. For ejection angles smaller than 20°, ejecta velocities of up to 30 km/sec were detected when the primary particle velocity was 4.8 km/sec. Using the dependence of the light intensity on pressure in the target chamber, an estimate of the total amount of material vaporized during impact could be derived. It was concluded that at 7.4 km/sec particle impact velocity at least 1.6% of the displaced projectile and crater material was vaporized.  相似文献   

6.
It has been pointed out in the past that it is impossible to accelerate molecular material to velocities ≥ 25 km s−1 with gasdynamic shocks without dissociating the gas. Because of this, it has been argued that observations of molecular emission with radial velocities ∼ 20–100 km s−1 imply the presence of 'C-shocks' (which have much lower post-shock temperatures, and therefore do not dissociate the gas) and the existence of strong (∼ 10–100 μG) magnetic fields.   In this paper, we discuss an alternative mechanism for accelerating molecular material to high velocities: a high-velocity, low-density wind drives a non-dissociative shock (with shock velocity v cs ≤ 25 km s−1) into a high-density, molecular clump. Once this shock wave has gone through the clump, the molecular material is moving at a velocity ∼  v cs and has a gas pressure approximately equal to the ram pressure of the impinging wind. The compressed molecular clump can now be accelerated directly by the ram pressure of the wind (without the passage of further shocks through the molecular material), and will eventually move at the wind velocity.   This mechanism has been previously invoked to explain high-velocity molecular emission. However, numerical simulations have shown that a wind/clump interaction leads to the fragmentation of the clump before it can be accelerated to large velocities. In our numerical simulation (which includes an approximate treatment of the relevant microphysics) we find that the fragments that are produced are still largely molecular, and that they are rapidly accelerated to velocities comparable to the wind velocity. We therefore conclude that a wind/molecular clump interaction is indeed a valid mechanism for producing high-velocity molecular features.  相似文献   

7.
Impact cratering on porous asteroids   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
The increasing evidence that many or even most asteroids are rubble piles underscores the need to understand how porous structures respond to impact. Experiments are reported in which craters are formed in porous, crushable, silicate materials by impacts at 2 km/s. Target porosity ranged from 34 to 96%. The experiments were performed at elevated acceleration on a centrifuge to provide similarity conditions that reproduce the physics of the formation of asteroid craters as large as several tens of kilometers in diameter.Crater and ejecta blanket formation in these highly porous materials is found to be markedly different from that observed in typical dry soils of low or moderate porosity. In highly porous materials, the compaction of the target material introduces a new cratering mechanism. The ejection velocities are substantially lower than those for impacts in less porous materials. The experiments imply that, while small craters on porous asteroids should produce ejecta blankets in the usual fashion, large craters form without ejecta blankets. In large impacts, most of the ejected material never escapes the crater. However, a significant crater bowl remains because of the volume created by permanent compaction of the target material. Over time, multiple cratering events can significantly increase the global density of an asteroid.  相似文献   

8.
An H solar prominence with the characteristics of a spray was ejected in association with a bright limb flare. Knots of material were observed to a distance of more than one solar radius above the west limb of the Sun. The optical event was followed by 80 MHz emission from a type IV source which was observed moving out through several solar radii.Coronagraph observations have been used to determine the trajectories and velocities of the knots in directions perpendicular to the line of sight. After some early deceleration velocities increase to 300–500 km/sec and slowly decline with variations depending on the initial direction of outflow. We suggest that the magnetic field over the spot group is deformed by the energy of the mass motions of material fragments, some of which then continue to move outward from the Sun.  相似文献   

9.
We investigated the ejection mechanics by a complementary approach of cratering experiments, including the microscopic analysis of material sampled from these experiments, and 2‐D numerical modeling of vertical impacts. The study is based on cratering experiments in quartz sand targets performed at the NASA Ames Vertical Gun Range. In these experiments, the preimpact location in the target and the final position of ejecta was determined by using color‐coded sand and a catcher system for the ejecta. The results were compared with numerical simulations of the cratering and ejection process to validate the iSALE shock physics code. In turn the models provide further details on the ejection velocities and angles. We quantify the general assumption that ejecta thickness decreases with distance according to a power‐law and that the relative proportion of shocked material in the ejecta increase with distance. We distinguish three types of shock metamorphic particles (1) melt particles, (2) shock lithified aggregates, and (3) shock‐comminuted grains. The agreement between experiment and model was excellent, which provides confidence that the models can predict ejection angles, velocities, and the degree of shock loading of material expelled from a crater accurately if impact parameters such as impact velocity, impactor size, and gravity are varied beyond the experimental limitations. This study is relevant for a quantitative assessment of impact gardening on planetary surfaces and the evolution of regolith layers on atmosphereless bodies.  相似文献   

10.
Laboratory impact experiments were performed to investigate the conditions that produce large-scale damage in rock targets. Aluminum cylinders (6.3 mm diameter) impacted basalt cylinders (69 mm diameter) at speeds ranging from 0.7 to 2.0 km/s. Diagnostics included measurements of the largest fragment mass, velocities of the largest remnant and large fragments ejected from the periphery of the target, and X-ray computed tomography imaging to inspect some of the impacted targets for internal damage. Significant damage to the target occurred when the kinetic energy per unit target mass exceeded roughly of the energy required for catastrophic shattering (where the target is reduced to one-half its original mass). Scaling laws based on a rate-dependent strength were developed that provide a basis for extrapolating the results to larger strength-dominated collisions. The threshold specific energy for widespread damage was found to scale with event size in the same manner as that for catastrophic shattering. Therefore, the factor of four difference between the two thresholds observed in the lab also applies to larger collisions. The scaling laws showed that for a sequence of collisions that are similar in that they produce the same ratio of largest fragment mass to original target mass, the fragment velocities decrease with increasing event size. As a result, rocky asteroids a couple hundred meters in diameter should retain their large ejecta fragments in a jumbled rubble-pile state. For somewhat larger bodies, the ejection velocities are sufficiently low that large fragments are essentially retained in place, possibly forming ordered “brick-pile” structures.  相似文献   

11.
Vladimir Svetsov 《Icarus》2011,214(1):316-326
I have performed 3D numerical hydrodynamic simulations of impacts of stony projectiles on stony planar targets in a range of impact velocities from 1.25 to 60 km/s. The projectile and target masses ejected at speeds greater than some given values have been calculated. This provided a possibility to determine impact erosion of a target which undergoes bombardment with comparatively small bodies. The relative losses of target masses and masses of retained projectile material have been averaged over impact angles and approximated by analytical formulas as functions of impact and escape velocities. The balance between escaped material of a target and retained material of a projectile determines growth or reduction of a target mass. The target cratering erosion predominates over the projectile retention when the impacts have velocities of more than 3-5 times the escape velocity of a target. The results can be applied to collisions of planetary embryos with planetesimals, which have higher velocities than embryo-embryo impacts. Estimates for impact velocities 1-10 km/s show that while large embryos accrete planetesimals smaller embryos erode and can completely vanish or partly lose their silicate shells if they are differentiated. Application of calculated erosion efficiency to Mercury made it possible to test a hypothesis (Vityazev, A.V., Pechernikova, G.V., Safronov, V.S. [1988]. Formation of Mercury and removal of its silicate shell. In: Vilas, F., Chapman, C.R., Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Mercury. Univ. Arizona Press., Tucson, pp. 667−669) that differentiated massive proto-Mercury has lost its mantle due to collisions with objects of moderate sizes. It turned out that in order for this to happen, relative collision velocities must exceed 25 km/s. As alternatives to the widely-known hypothesis of a giant impact on a massive proto-Mercury, other possibilities are considered, which do not require such high speeds. The first one is formation of a number of small-sized metal-rich embryos which lose their silicate shells due to cratering erosion. The second is that a small proto-Mercury was metallic and gained its mantle at the latest stage of its accumulation when it grew so large that the erosion became ineffective.  相似文献   

12.
High-velocity comet and asteroid impacts onto the Moon are considered and the material masses ejected after such impacts at velocities above the second-cosmic velocity for the Moon (2.4 km/s) are calculated. Although the results depend on a projectile type and the velocity and angle of an impact, it has been demonstrated that, on average, the lunar mass decreases with time. The Moon has lost about 5 × 1018 kg, that is, about one-hundredth of a percent of its mass, over the last 3.8–3.9 billion years. The ejection of lunar meteorites and lunar dust, rich in 3He, is considered as well. The results of the study are compared to the results of earlier computations and data on lunar meteorites.  相似文献   

13.
V. Carruba  J.A. Burns  W. Bottke 《Icarus》2003,162(2):308-327
Asteroid families are groupings of minor planets identified by clustering in their proper orbital elements; these objects have spectral signatures consistent with an origin in the break-up of a common parent body. From the current values of proper semimajor axes a of family members one might hope to estimate the ejection velocities with which the fragments left the putative break-up event (assuming that the pieces were ejected isotropically). However, the ejection velocities so inferred are consistently higher than N-body and hydro-code simulations, as well as laboratory experiments, suggest. To explain this discrepancy between today’s orbital distribution of asteroid family members and their supposed launch velocities, we study whether asteroid family members might have been ejected from the collision at low speeds and then slowly drifted to their current positions, via one or more dynamical processes. Studies show that the proper a of asteroid family members can be altered by two mechanisms: (i) close encounters with massive asteroids, and (ii) the Yarkovsky non-gravitational effect. Because the Yarkovsky effect for kilometer-sized bodies decreases with asteroid diameter D, it is unlikely to have appreciably moved large asteroids (say those with D > 15 km) over the typical family age (1-2 Gyr).For this reason, we numerically studied the mobility of family members produced by close encounters with main-belt, non-family asteroids that were thought massive enough to significantly change their orbits over long timescales. Our goal was to learn the degree to which perturbations might modify the proper a values of all family members, including those too large to be influenced by the Yarkovsky effect. Our initial simulations demonstrated immediately that very few asteroids were massive enough to significantly alter relative orbits among family members. Thus, to maximize gravitational perturbations in our 500-Myr integrations, we investigated the effect of close encounters on two families, Gefion and Adeona, that have high encounter probabilities with 1 Ceres, by far the largest asteroid in the main belt. Our results show that members of these families spreads in a of less than 5% since their formation. Thus gravitational interactions cannot account for the large inferred escape velocities.The effect of close encounters with massive asteroids is, however, not entirely negligible. For about 10% of the simulated bodies, close encounters increased the “inferred” ejection velocities from sub-100 m/s to values greater than 100 m/s, beyond what hydro-code and N-body simulations suggest are the maximum possible initial ejection velocity for members of Adeona and Gefion with D > 15 km. Thus this mechanism of mobility may be responsible for the unusually high inferred ejection speeds of a few of the largest members of these two families.To understand the orbital evolution of the entire family, including smaller members, we also performed simulations to account for the drift of smaller asteroids caused by the Yarkovsky effect. Our two sets of simulations suggest that the two families we investigated are relatively young compared to larger families like Koronis and Themis, which have estimated ages of about 2 Byr. The Adeona and Gefion families seems to be no more than 600 and 850 Myr old, respectively.  相似文献   

14.
From the light emitted during impacts of secondary particles produced during hypervelocity primary impacts, the velocities and relative masses of these ejecta were determined as a function of the angle between the ejection direction and the target surface. The velocity of the ejecta increases with increasing impact velocity and decreasing ejection angle. The ratio of the maximum ejecta velocity to the primary impact velocity decreases with increasing impact speed. The main fraction of the secondary particles is ejected in rather small angular intervals of about 10° width in elevation. The ejection angle of the main fraction of the ejecta mass increases with increasing impact velocity.  相似文献   

15.
A large number of shock recovery experiments that address the ease of impact melt formation as a function of peak shock pressure lead to the conclusion that impacts at 5 km/sec into fragmental, porous surfaces will produce agglutinate-type glasses; no shock melts are produced at these velocities in dense silicate target rocks. While agglutinitic glasses dominate lunar surface soils, they are virtually absent in gas-rich, brecciated meteorites. This apparent paucity—if not complete lack—of agglutinate-type glasses is also inferred from remote IR-reflectance spectroscopy. The need to identify mechanisms that inhibit agglutinate formation on asteroidal sufaces was recognized previously and was predominantly attributed to lower projectile velocities and different gravitational environments.We will argue in this paper that additional mechanisms may be required. Specifically we propose that spall processes at a target's free surface play a major role in asteroidal surface evolution. At 5 km/sec collision velocity, a target (RT) to projectile (RP radius ratio of RTRP ≈ 100 delineates the boundary between an “infinite half-space” and a “finite”-sized target. In the first case, collisional energy is expended in a pure cratering regime; in the latter, additional displacement of target material in the form of spallation products occurs. The spall volume may exceed the crater volume by an order of magnitude. Therefore fragmental impact deposits on small planetary bodies may be entirely controlled by spall products, rather than crater ejecta. Because tensile failure occurs at <0.2 GPa stress, spall velocities are measured in meters per second (contrary to crater ejecta) and therefore spallation products are efficiently retained even in low gravitational environments. Spall products are also more coarse grained than crater ejecta; they are also highly biased toward petrographically “unshocked” (<0.2 GPa) rocks.Thus asteroidal surface deposits should be more coarse grained and less shocked than lunar ones—consistent with meteorite evidence and remote-sensing observations. Because spall volume exceeds crater ejecta volume, the total growth rate of asteroidal surface deposits is accelerated, leading to relatively short surface residence times of individual meteorite components, another significant difference between lunar and asteroidal surface materials.  相似文献   

16.
Abstract– Despite its centennial exploration history, there are still unresolved questions about Meteor Crater, the first recognized impact crater on Earth. This theoretical study addresses some of these questions by comparing model results with field and laboratory studies of Meteor Crater. Our results indicate that Meteor Crater was formed by a high‐velocity impact of a fragmented projectile, ruling out a highly dispersed swarm as well as a very low impact velocity. Projectile fragmentation caused many fragments to fall separately from the main body of the impactor, making up the bulk of the Canyon Diablo meteorites; most of these fragments were engulfed in the expansion plume as they approached the surface without suffering high shock compression, and were redistributed randomly around the crater. Thus, the distribution of Canyon Diablo meteorites is not representative of projectile trajectory, as is usual for impactor fragments in smaller strewn fields. At least 50% of the main impactor was ejected from the crater during crater excavation and was dispersed mostly downrange of the crater as molten particles (spheroids) and highly shocked solid fragments (shrapnel). When compared with the known distribution, model results suggest an impactor from the SW. Overall, every model case produced much higher amounts of pure projectile material than observed. The projectile‐target mixing was not considered in the models; however, this process could be the main sink of projectile melt, as all analyzed melt particles have high concentrations of projectile material. The fate of the solid projectile fragments is still not completely resolved. Model results suggest that the depth of melting in the target can reach the Coconino sandstone formation. However, most of the ejected melt originates from 30–40 m depth and, thus, is limited to Moenkopi and upper Kaibab material. Some melt remains in the target; based on the estimated volume of the breccia lens at Meteor Crater, our models suggest at most a 2% content of melt in the breccia. Finally, a high water table at the time of impact could have aided strong dispersion of target and projectile melt.  相似文献   

17.
The composition of the impact plasma produced by fast dust particles (v > 1 km/sec) hitting an Au or W target was measured both with a model of the HELIOS micrometeoroid experiment (low electric field at the target) and a high field detector. The plasma composition and the total plasma charge depend strongly on the impact velocity and the electric field strength at the target. Spectra of 9 different projectile-target combinations were analysed. Two types of spectra could be observed, depending on the projectile material. (1) Spectra of metals and hard dielectrics (Mohs' hardness ? 5). Particle constituents of low ionisation energy (e · u ? 7eV, e.g. Na, K, Al) dominate the spectra of these materials at impact velocities below 10 km/sec. At higher speed the relative intensities change and new ions with higher ionisation energies appear. (2) Spectra of soft dielectrics (Mohs' hardness < 3). Below 9 km/sec these materials produced less total charge than did the others. The highest masses were detected at 74 amu. The relative abundance of ions with low ionization energies such as Li, Na, K, etc. is comparatively small. Negative ions were also observed in the impact plasma. Their total number was found to be approximately 3–6% of that of the positive ions at 6 km/sec particle speed.  相似文献   

18.
Hyperion is an irregularly shaped object of about 285 km in mean diameter, which appears as the likely remmant of a catastrophic collisional evolution. Since the peculiar orbit of this satellite (in 43 resonance locking with Titan) provides an effective mechanism to prevent any reaccretion of secondary fragments originated in a breakup event, the present Hyperion is probably the “core” of a disrupted precursor. This contrasts with the other, regularly shaped small satellites of Saturn, which, according to B.A. Smith et al. [Science215, 504–537 (1982)], were disrupted several times but could reaccrete from narrow rings of collisional fragments. The numerical experiments performed to explore the region of the phase space surrounding the present orbit show that most fragments ejected with a relative velocity ?0.1 km/sec rapidly attain chaotic-type orbits, having repeated close encounters with Titan. Ejection velocities of this order of magnitude are indeed expected for a collision at a velocity of ～ 10 km/sec with a projectile-to-target mass ratio of the order of 10?3; similar effects could be produced by less energetic but nearly grazing collisions. Such events are not likely to displace the largest remnant (i.e., the present Hyperion) outside the stable region of the phase space associated with the resonance, but could be responsible for the large amplitude of the observed orbital libration.  相似文献   

19.
Distributions of boulders ejected from lunar craters   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
We investigate the spatial distributions of boulders ejected from 18 lunar impact craters that are hundreds of meters in diameter. To accomplish this goal, we measured the diameters of 13,955 ejected boulders and the distance of each boulder from the crater center. Using the boulder distances, we calculated ejection velocities for the boulders. We compare these data with previously published data on larger craters and use this information to determine how boulder ejection velocity scales with crater diameter. We also measured regolith depths in the areas surrounding many of the craters, for comparison with the boulder distributions. These results contribute to understanding boulder ejection velocities, to determining whether there is a relationship between the quantity of ejected boulders and lunar regolith depths, and to understanding the distributions of secondary craters in the Solar System. Understanding distributions of blocky ejecta is an important consideration for landing site selection on both the Moon and Mars.  相似文献   

20.
We study central collisions between millimeter-sized dust projectiles and centimeter-sized dust targets in impact experiments. Target and projectile are dust aggregates consisting of micrometer-sized SiO2 particles. Collision velocities range up to 25 m/s. The general outcome of a collision strongly depends on the impact velocity. For collisions below 13 m/s rebound and a small degree of fragmentation occur. However, at higher collision velocities up to 25 m/s approximately 50% of the mass of the projectile rigidly sticks to the target after the collision. Thus, net growth of a body is possible in high speed collisions. This supports the idea that planetesimal formation via collisional growth is a viable mechanism at higher impact velocities. Within our set of parameters the experiments even suggest that higher impact velocities might be preferable for growth in collisions between dusty bodies. For the highest impact velocities most of the ejecta is within small dust aggregates about 500 μm in size. In detail the size distribution of ejected dust aggregates is flat for very small particles smaller than 500 μm and follows a power law for larger ejected dust aggregates with a power of −5.6±0.2. There is a sharp upper cut-off at about 1 mm in size with only a few particles being slightly larger. The ejection angle is smaller than 3° with respect to the target surface. These fast ejecta move with 40±10% of the impact velocity.  相似文献   

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