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1.
A scale-similarity model to estimate the subfilter-scale energy using the trace of the Leonard stress tensor is proposed and evaluated for large-eddy simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The model is derived from a stability-dependent model of the energy spectrum in the ABL, which accounts for the effects of buoyancy and mean shear as a function of z/L, the Monin–Obukhov stability variable. An a priori test using ABL turbulence data demonstrates that the model has accurate performance for dimensionless filter widths of Δ/z = 2, 1, and 0.5 for stabilities of −1 ≤ z/L ≤ 0.5, and improves considerably upon a similar model that is derived using an infinite κ −5/3 spectrum. This improvement is especially significant in the first several grid points near the surface in large-eddy simulations of the ABL, where Δ/z is necessarily large. The modelling procedure is then extended to develop a similarity model for the subfilter-scale scalar variance; it is shown to have robust performance for temperature.  相似文献   

2.
The parameterization of the dimensionless entrainment rate (w e /w *) versus the convective Richardson number (Ri δθ ) is discussed in the framework of a first-order jump model (FOM). A theoretical estimation for the proportionality coefficient in this parameterization, namely, the total entrainment flux ratio, is derived. This states that the total entrainment flux ratio in FOM can be estimated as the ratio of the entrainment zone thickness to the mixed-layer depth, a relationship that is supported by earlier tank experiments, and suggesting that the total entrainment flux ratio should be treated as a variable. Analyses show that the variability of the total entrainment flux ratio is actually the effect of stratification in the free atmosphere on the entrainment process, which should be taken into account in the parameterization. Further examination of data from tank experiments and large-eddy simulations demonstrate that the different power laws for w e /w * versus Ri δθ can be interpreted as the variability of the total entrainment flux ratio. These results indicate that the dimensionless entrainment rate depends not only on the convective Richardson number but also upon the total entrainment flux ratio.  相似文献   

3.
A laboratory study of scalar diffusion in the convective boundary layer has found results that are consistent with a 1999 large-eddy simulation (LES) study by Jonker, Duynkerke and Cuijpers. For bottom-up and top-down scalars (introduced as ‘infinite’ area sources of passive tracer at the surface and inversion, respectively) the dominant length scale was found to be much larger than the length scale for density fluctuations, the latter being equal to the boundary-layer depth h. The variance of the normalized passive scalar grew continuously with time and its magnitude was about 3–5 times larger for the top-down case than for the bottom-up case. The vertical profiles of the normalized passive scalar variance were found to be approximately constant through the convective boundary layer (CBL) with a value of about 3–8c*2 for bottom-up and 10–50c*2 for top-down diffusion. Finally, there was some evidence of a minimum in the variance and dominant length scale for scalar flux ratios (top-down to bottom-up flux) close to −0.5. All these convection tank results confirm the LES results and support the hypothesis that there is a distinct difference in behaviour between the dynamic and passive variables in the CBL.  相似文献   

4.
We examine daily (morning–afternoon) transitions in the atmospheric boundary layer based on large-eddy simulations. Under consideration are the effects of the stratification at the top of the mixed layer and of the wind shear. The results describe the transitory behaviour of temperature and wind velocity, their second moments, the boundary-layer height Z m (defined by the maximum of the potential temperature gradient) and its standard deviation σ m , the mixed-layer height z i (defined by the minimum of the potential temperature flux), entrainment velocity W e, and the entrainment flux H i . The entrainment flux and the entrainment velocity are found to lag slightly in time with respect to the surface temperature flux. The simulations imply that the atmospheric values of velocity variances, measured at various instants during the daytime, and normalized in terms of the actual convective scale w*, are not expected to collapse to a single curve, but to produce a significant scatter of observational points. The measured values of the temperature variance, normalized in terms of the actual convective scale Θ*, are expected to form a single curve in the mixed layer, and to exhibit a considerable scatter in the interfacial layer.  相似文献   

5.
A time series of microwave radiometric profiles over Arctic Canada’s Cape Bathurst (70°N, 124.5°W) flaw lead polynya region from 1 January to 30 June, 2008 was examined to determine the general characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer in winter and spring. A surface based or elevated inversion was present on 97% of winter (January–March) days, and on 77% of spring (April–June) days. The inversion was the deepest in the first week of March (≈1100 m), and the shallowest in June (≈250 m). The mean temperature and absolute humidity from the surface to the top of the inversion averaged 250.1 K (−23.1°C), and 0.56 × 10−3 kg m−3 in winter, and in spring averaged 267.5 K (−5.6°C), and 2.77 × 10−3 kg m−3. The median winter atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) potential temperature profile provided evidence of a shallow, weakly stable internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) topped by an inversion (350–1,000 m). The median spring profile showed a shallow, near-neutral internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) under an elevated inversion (600–800 m). The median ABL absolute humidity profiles were weakly positive in winter and negative in spring. Estimates of the convergence of sensible heat and water vapour from the surface that could have produced the turbulent internal boundary layers of the median profiles were 0.67 MJ m−2 and 13.1 × 10−3 kg m−2 for the winter season, and 0.66 MJ m−2 and 33.4 × 10−3 kg m−2 for the spring season. With fetches of 10–100 km, these accumulations may have resulted from a surface sensible heat flux of 15–185 W m−2, plus a surface moisture flux of 0.001–0.013 mm h−1 (or a latent heat flux of 0.7–8.8 W m−2) in winter, and 0.003–0.033 mm h−1 (or a latent heat flux of 2–22 W m−2) in spring.  相似文献   

6.
Most natural landscapes are characterized by multiscale (often multifractal) topography with well-known scale-invariance properties. For example, the spectral density of landscape elevation fields is often found to have a power-law scaling behaviour (with a −2 slope on a log–log scale) over a wide span of spatial scales, typically ranging from tens of kilometres down to a few metres. Even though the effect of topography on the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) has been the subject of numerous studies, few have focussed on multiscale topography. In this study, large-eddy simulation (LES) is used to investigate boundary-layer flow over multiscale topography, and guide the development of parametrizations needed to represent the effects of subgrid-scale (SGS) topography in numerical models of ABL flow. Particular emphasis is placed on the formulation of an effective roughness used to account for the increased aerodynamic roughness associated with SGS topography. The LES code uses the scale-dependent Lagrangian dynamic SGS model for the turbulent stresses and a terrain-following coordinate transformation to explicitly resolve the effects of the topography at scales larger than the LES resolution. The terrain used in the simulations is generated using a restricted solid-on-solid landscape evolution model, and it is characterized by a −2 slope of the elevation power spectrum. Results from simulations performed using elevation fields band-pass filtered at different spatial resolutions indicate a clear linear relation between the square of the effective roughness and the variance of elevation.  相似文献   

7.
The scaling laws of the vertical (F wc ) and longitudinal (F uc ) velocity-scalar cospectra within the inertial subrange are explored using dimensional arguments and a simplified cospectral budget in the canopy sublayer above three distinct forested ecosystems. The cospectral budget was shown to be consistent with plausible scaling laws originating from dimensional considerations. Using the analytical solution to the novel cospectral budget, it was shown that F wc (k) and F uc (k) are governed by the linear superposition of two terms that scale as k −2/3−α and k −β , where k is the wavenumber, −α is the exponent of the velocity spectrum, and β( ≥ 7/3) depends on the ratio of the similarity constants for the pressure-scalar covariance and the flux transport terms. It was also demonstrated that, when the magnitude of the mean scalar concentration gradient is large, the k −2/3−α term dominates the velocity-scalar cospectral budget. For such a case, correcting for biases emerging from high frequency losses in eddy-covariance scalar flux measurements can be readily formulated by using the measured velocity spectral exponent in the inertial subrange.  相似文献   

8.
Summary An aircraft-based experimental investigation of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) structure and of the energy exchange processes over heterogeneous land surfaces is presented. The measurements are used for the validation of the mesoscale atmospheric model “Lokal-Modell” (LM) of the German Weather Service with 2.8 km resolution. In addition, high-resolution simulations using the non-hydrostatic model FOOT3DK with 250 m resolution are performed in order to resolve detailed surface heterogeneities. Two special observation periods in May 1999 show comparable convective boundary layer (CBL) conditions. For one case study vertical profiles and area averages of meteorological quantities and energy fluxes are investigated in detail. The measured net radiation is highly dependent on surface albedo, and the latent heat flux exhibits a strong temporal variability in the investigation area. A reduction of this variability is possible by aggregation of multiple flight patterns. To calculate surface fluxes from aircraft measurements at low altitude, turbulent energy fluxes were extrapolated to the ground by the budget method, which turned out to be well applicable for the sensible heat flux, but not for the latent flux. The development of the ABL is well captured by the LM simulation. The comparison of spatiotemporal averages shows an underestimation of the observed net radiation, which is mainly caused by thin low-level clouds in the LM compared to observed scattered CBL clouds. The sensible heat flux is reproduced very well, while the latent flux is highly overestimated especially above forests. The realistic representation of surface heterogeneities in the investigation area in the FOOT3DK simulations leads to improvements for the energy fluxes, but an overestimation of the latent heat flux still persists. A study of upscaling effects yields more structures than the LM fields when averaged to the same scale, which are partly caused by the non-linear effects of parameter aggregation on the LM scale.  相似文献   

9.
Flux Footprint Simulation Downwind of a Forest Edge   总被引：2，自引：2，他引：0  
Surface fluxes, originating from forest patches, are commonly calculated from atmospheric flux measurements at some height above that patch using a correction for flux arising from upwind surfaces. Footprint models have been developed to calculate such a correction. These models commonly assume homogeneous turbulence, resulting in a simulated atmospheric flux equal to the average surface flux in the footprint area. However, atmospheric scalar fluxes downwind of a forest edge have been observed to exceed surface fluxes in the footprint area. Variations in atmospheric turbulence downwind of the forest edge, as simulated with an E – model, can explain enhanced atmospheric scalar fluxes. This E – model is used to calculate the footprint of atmospheric measurements downwind of a forest edge. Atmospheric fluxes appear mainly enhanced as a result of a stronger sensitivity to fluxes from the upwind surface. A sensitivity analysis shows that the fetch over forest, necessary to reach equilibrium between atmospheric fluxes and surface fluxes, tends to be longer for scalar fluxes as compared to momentum fluxes. With increasing forest density, atmospheric fluxes deviate even more strongly from surface fluxes, but over shorter fetches. It is concluded that scalar fluxes over forests are commonly affected by inhomogeneous turbulence over large fetches downwind of an edge. It is recommended to take horizontal variations in turbulence into account when the footprint is calculated for atmospheric flux measurements downwind of a forest edge. The spatially integrated footprint is recommended to describe the ratio between the atmospheric flux and the average surface flux in the footprint.  相似文献   

10.
The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) model of Weng and Taylor with E−ℓ turbulence closure is applied to simulate the one-dimensional stably stratified ABL. The model has been run for nine hours from specified initial wind, potential temperature and turbulent kinetic energy profiles, and with a specified cooling rate applied at the surface. Different runs are conducted for different cooling rates, geostrophic winds and surface roughnesses. The results are discussed and compared with other models, large-eddy simulations and published field data.  相似文献   

11.
2017年12月22日至2018年1月18日利用无人机携带温、湿和颗粒物浓度探测仪对南京地区灰霾污染条件下大气边界层垂直结构开展加密观测。通过比较不同灰霾污染条件下温度、湿度和PM2.5（直径小于2.5微米的颗粒物）浓度的垂直结构差异,结合地面热通量、2米空气温度、相对湿度、风速、风向及主要大气污染物（如臭氧和PM2.5）浓度,定量评估了气溶胶辐射效应对边界层和夹卷过程的影响。分析表明,灰霾或气溶胶削弱到达地表太阳辐射,减小地表感热通量,延迟边界层发展,增加近地层大气稳定度,降低边界层高度,并加重灰霾污染。灰霾污染物在混合层顶处累积,导致PM2.5浓度最大变化出现在边界层顶部而不是近地层。气溶胶辐射效应对夹卷特征及其特征参数有重要影响。灰霾浓度升高时,夹卷区厚度增加;无量纲化夹卷速度随对流理查逊数的变化不再符合负1次方幂函数关系,与大涡模拟结果一致。本研究进一步指出,为提高重霾污染条件下天气和空气质量数值预报水平,必须考虑气溶胶辐射效应对边界层和夹卷参数化的影响。  相似文献   

12.
Observations of low-level jets (LLJs) at the Howland AmeriFlux site in the USA and the jet’s impact on nocturnal turbulent exchange and scalar fluxes over a tall forest canopy are discussed. Low-frequency motions and turbulent bursts characterize moderately strong LLJs, whereas low-frequency motions are suppressed during periods with strong LLJs and enhanced shear. An analysis based on the shear-sheltering hypothesis seeks to elucidate the effect of LLJs on flux measurements. In the absence of shear sheltering, large eddies penetrate the roughness sublayer causing enhanced mixing while during periods with shear sheltering, mixing is reduced. In the absence of the latter, ‘upside-down’ eddies are primarily responsible for the enhanced velocity variances, scalar and momentum fluxes. The integral length scales over the canopy are greater than the canopy height. The variance spectra and cospectra from the wavelet analysis indicate that large eddies (spatial scale greater than the low-level jet height) interact with active canopy-scale turbulence, contributing to counter-gradient scalar fluxes.  相似文献   

13.
Atmospheric Boundary-Layer Dynamics with Constant Bowen Ratio   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0  
Motivated by the observation that the diurnal evolution of sensible and latent heat fluxes tends to maintain a constant Bowen ratio, we derive approximate solutions of the ordinary differential equations of a simplified atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) model. Neglecting the early morning transition, the potential temperature and specific humidity of the mixed layer are found to be linearly related to the ABL height. Similar behaviour is followed by the inversion strengths of temperature and humidity at the top of the ABL. The potential temperature of the mixed layer depends on the entrainment parameter and the free-atmosphere temperature lapse rate, while the specific humidity also depends on the free-atmosphere humidity lapse rate and the Bowen ratio. The temporal dynamics appear only implicitly in the evolution of the height of the boundary layer, which in turn depends on the time-integrated surface sensible heat flux. Studying the limiting behaviour of the Bowen ratio for very low and very large values of net available energy, we also show how the tendency to maintain constant Bowen ratio during midday hours stems from its relative insensitivity to the atmospheric conditions for large values of net available energy. The analytical expression for the diurnal evolution of the ABL obtained with constant Bowen ratio is simple and provides a benchmark for the results of more complex models.  相似文献   

14.
Turbulence structures of high Reynolds number flow in the near-neutral atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) are investigated based on observations at Shionomisaki and Shigaraki, Japan. A Doppler sodar measured the vertical profiles of winds in the ABL. Using the integral wavelet transform for the time series of surface wind data, the pattern of a descending high-speed structure with large vertical extent (from the surface to more than 200-m level) is depicted from the Doppler sodar data. Essentially this structure is a specific type of coherent structure that has been previously shown in experiments on turbulent boundary-layer flows. Large-scale high-speed structures in the ABL are extracted using a long time scale (240 s) for the wavelet transform. The non-dimensional interval of time between structures is evaluated as 3.0–6.2 in most cases. These structures make a large contribution to downward momentum transfer in the surface layer. Quadrant analyses of the turbulent motion measured by the sonic anemometer (20-m height) suggest that the sweep motion (high-speed downward motion) plays a substantial role in the downward momentum transfer. In general, the contribution of sweep motions to the momentum flux is nearly equal to that of ejection motions (low-speed upward motions). This contribution of sweep motions is related to the large-scale high-speed structures.  相似文献   

15.
The flux–gradient relationships in the unstable roughness sublayer (RSL) over an open canopy of black spruce forest were examined using long-term observations from an instrumented tower. The observed gradients normalised with the surface fluxes and height above the zero-plane displacement showed differences from a universal function established in the surface layer. The magnitude of differences was not constant throughout the year even at the same observation height. Also the magnitude of the differences was different for each scalar, and scalar similarity in the context of the flux–gradient relationship did not always hold. The variation of the differences was explained by the relative contribution of overstorey vegetation to the total flux from the entire ecosystem. This suggests that a mismatch of the vertical source/sink distributions between scalars leads to a different strength of the near-field dispersion effect for each scalar, and this resulted in inequality of eddy diffusivity among scalars in the RSL. An empirical method that predicts the magnitude of differences is proposed. With this method, it is possible to estimate the eddy diffusivity of scalars provided that the relative contribution of overstorey vegetation to the total flux from the ecosystem is known. Also this method can be used to estimate the eddy diffusivity for scalars whose primary sources are at ground level, such as methane and nitrous oxide.  相似文献   

16.
The Summer Surface Energy Balance of the High Antarctic Plateau   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
The summertime surface energy balance (SEB) at Kohnen station, situated on the high Antarctic plateau (75°00′ S, 0°04′ E, 2892m above sea level) is presented for the period of 8 January to 9 February 2002. Shortwave and longwave radiation fluxes were measured directly; the former was corrected for problems associated with the cosine response of the instrument. Sensible and latent heat fluxes were calculated using the bulk method, and eddy-correlation measurements and the modified Bowen ratio method were used to verify these calculated fluxes. The calculated sub-surface heat flux was checked by comparing calculated to measured snow temperatures. Uncertainties in the measurements and energy-balance calculations are discussed. The general meteorological conditions were not extraordinary during the period of the experiment, with a mean 2-m air temperature of −27.5°C, specific humidity of 0.52×10−3kg kg−1 and wind speed of 4.1ms−1. The experiment covered the transition period from Antarctic summer (positive net radiation) to winter (negative net radiation), and as a result the period mean net radiation, sensible heat, latent heat and sub-surface heat fluxes were small with values of −1.1, 0.0, −1.0 and 0.7 Wm−2, respectively. Daily mean net radiation peaked on cloudy days (16 Wm−2) and was negative on clear-sky days (minimum of −19 W m−2). Daily mean sensible heat flux ranged from −8 to +10 Wm−2, latent heat flux from −4 to 0 Wm−2 and sub-surface heat flux from −8 to +7 Wm−2.  相似文献   

17.
Extended sheets of stratocumulus (Sc) in the upper part of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) often occur under appropriate meteorological conditions. These cloud decks are important both in climate studies and in weather forecasting. We review the current knowledge of the turbulent structure of the ABL capped by a cloud deck, in the light of recent observations and model studies. The most important physical processes determining this structure are longwave radiative cooling at cloud top, shortwave radiative wanning by absorption in the cloud, surface buoyancy flux, and wind shear in the ABL. As a result, turbulence can cause entrainment against the buoyancy jump at cloud top. In cases where only longwave radiative fluxes and surface buoyancy fluxes are important, the turbulent structure is relatively well understood. When shortwave radiative fluxes and/or wind shear are also important, the resulting turbulent structure may change considerably. A decoupling of the cloud from the sub-cloud layer or of the top of the cloud from the rest of the ABL is then regularly observed. In no cases are the details of the entrainment at cloud top understood well enough to derive a relatively simple formulation that is consistent with observations. Cloud-top entrainment instability may lead to the break-up of a cloud deck (but also to cloud deepening). The role of mesoscale circulations in determining fractional cloudiness is not yet well understood.  相似文献   

18.
Summary Water vapour flux profiles in the atmospheric boundary layer have been derived from measurements of water vapour density fluctuations by a ground-based Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) and of vertical wind fluctuations by a ground-based Doppler lidar. The data were collected during the field experiment LITFASS-2003 in May/June 2003 in the area of Lindenberg, Germany. The eddy-correlation method was applied, and error estimates of ±50 W/m2 for latent heat flux were found. Since the sampling error dominates the overall measurement accuracy, time intervals between 60 and 120 min were required for a reliable flux calculation, depending on wind speed. Rather large errors may occur with low wind speed because the diurnal cycle restricts the useful interval length. In the lower height range, these measurements are compared with DIAL/radar-RASS fluxes. The agreement is good when comparing covariance and error values. The lidar flux profiles are well complemented by tower measurements at 50 and 90 m above ground and by area-averaged near surface fluxes from a network of micrometeorological stations. Water vapour flux profiles in the convective boundary layer exhibit different structures mainly depending on the magnitude of the entrainment flux. In situations with dry air above the boundary layer a positive entrainment flux is observed which can even exceed the surface flux. Flux profiles which linearly increase from the surface to the top of the boundary layer are observed as well as profiles which decrease in the lower part and increase in the upper part of the boundary layer. In situations with humid air above the boundary layer the entrainment flux is about zero in the upper part of the boundary layer and the profiles in most cases show a linear decrease.  相似文献   

19.
In the context of CO2 surface exchange estimation, an analysis combining the basic principles of diffusion and scalar conservation shows that the mixing ratio is the appropriate variable both for defining the (eddy covariance) turbulent flux and also for expressing the relationship between the turbulent flux and surface exchange in boundary-layer budget equations. Other scalar intensity variables sometimes chosen, both the CO2 density and molar fraction, are susceptible to the influence of surface exchange of heat and water vapour. The application of a hypsometric analysis to the boundary-layer “control volume” below the tower measurement height reveals flaws in previously applied approaches: (a) incompressibility cannot be assumed to simplify mass conservation (the budget in terms of CO2 density); (b) compressibility alone makes the analysis of mass conservation vulnerable to uncertainties associated with resultant non-zero vertical velocities too small to measure or model over real terrain; and (c) the WPL (Webb et al. (1980) Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 106:85–100) “zero dry air flux” assumption is invalidated except at the surface boundary. Nevertheless, the definition and removal of the WPL terms do not hinge upon this last assumption, and so the turbulent CO2 flux can be accurately determined by eddy covariance using gas analysers of either open- or closed-path design. An appendix discusses the necessary assumptions and appropriate interpretations for deriving the WPL terms.  相似文献   

20.
We have developed a simple, steady-state, one-dimensional second-order closure model to obtain continuous profiles of turbulent fluxes and mean concentrations of non-conserved scalars in a convective boundary layer without shear. As a basic tool we first set up a model for conserved species with standard parameterizations. This leads to formulations for profiles of the turbulent diffusivity and the ratio of temperature-scalar covariance to the flux of the passive scalar. The model is then extended to solving, in terms of profiles of mean concentrations and fluxes, the NO x –O3 triad problem. The chemical reactions involve one first-order reaction, the destruction of NO2 with decay time τ, and one second-order reaction, the destruction of NO and O3 with the reaction constant k. Since the fluxes of the sum concentrations of NO x = NO + NO2 and O3 + NO2 turn out to be constant throughout the boundary layer, the problem reduces to solving two differential equations for the concentration and the flux of NO2. The boundary conditions are the three surface fluxes and the fluxes at the top of the boundary layer, the last obtained from the entrainment velocity, and the concentration differences between the free troposphere and the top of the boundary layer. The equations are solved in a dimensionless form by using 1/(kτ) as the concentration unit, the depth h of the boundary layer as the length unit, the convective velocity scale w * as the velocity unit, and the surface temperature flux divided by w * as the temperature unit. Special care has been devoted to the inclusion of the scalar–scalar covariance between the concentrations of O3 and NO. Sample calculations show that the fluxes of the reactive species deviate significantly from those of non-reactive species. Further, the diffusivities, defined by minus the flux divided by the concentration gradient may become negative for reactive species in contrast to those of non-reactive species, which in the present model are never negative.  相似文献   

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