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1.
Mauro F. La Russa Germana Barone Cristina M. Belfiore Paolo Mazzoleni Antonino Pezzino 《Environmental Earth Sciences》2011,62(6):1263-1272
Noto is an important Baroque urban center in south-eastern Sicily, which was completely reconstructed after the severe earthquake
of 1693. Most of its monuments and historic buildings were built in Pietra di Noto stone, a pale cream calcarenite, quarried
in outcrops located near the city. This stone, still currently used as building material, is undergoing many forms of alteration
and degradation, which cause significant damage to monuments. In this study, three commercial protective products were tested
on some Noto calcarenite samples from quarries, with the aim of assessing their protective effectiveness. In particular, petrographic
analyses by optical microscopy were carried out for textural characterization of the stone materials. Capillary water absorption,
porosimetric and colorimetric procedures, UV radiation and salt crystallization aging tests were performed to better evaluate
interactions between protective products and substrate. 相似文献
2.
Malgorzata Labus 《Environmental Geology》2008,54(2):283-289
The scope of the paper is an attempt at the identification of the weathering-resistance classes within clastic rocks by means
of analysis of capillary pressure saturation curves. The porosimetric parameters corresponding to the cementing character
and the grains’ mineralogical content are very important features of stone building materials, because of the weathering processes.
The analysed rocks were Polish sandstones and muddy sandstones used for building purposes, collected from different geological
units of Poland (i.e. Sudety Mts. Carpathian Mts. and Holy Cross Mts.) The results indicate the usefulness of sandstone materials
for building purposes. They could also be used in conservation procedures and for the reconstruction of existing buildings
and monuments. Basing on the parameterisation, with the van Genuchten function, of cumulative capillary pressure saturation
curves, it was possible to distinguish four groups of the sampled rocks. The lithological features and weathering sustainability
within the groups are quite uniform, what allow identifying the weathering resistance classes. Taking into account the complicated
nature of all the factors influencing weathering processes, it is supposed that the presented parameterisation could be a
useful tool for weathering-resistance classification of clastic rocks. The classification could be useful in building industry
and in conservation of historical stone monuments. 相似文献
3.
I˙stanbul, the capital of the east Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires embraces two continents, one arm reaching out to
Asia, the other to Europe. It is therefore, a rich city in terms of monuments and historical cites. Shell limestones of Upper
Miocene age are used as building stone in the majority of the monuments in I˙stanbul because of their attractiveness, availability
and workability. The durability characteristics of the limestones are examined, and those factors that are responsible for
atmospheric weathering are discussed, in a humid and marine environment with important problems of urban pollution, specifically
due to traffic. In the present study weathering of the building stones were first examined in situ by macroscopic observations.
The weathering that developed as a result of environmental effects since this limestone was first used in historical monuments
has been affected 0.1–1.5 cm deep from the surface. The weathered facing stone of Şehzade Mehmed Mosque in I˙stanbul is undergoing
a program of progressive replacement. During this study, samples were taken from this monument where the shell limestone was
used. The stone surface was principally examined by means of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Petrographical and mineralogical
analyses were made by using optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction method. The physico-chemical properties of these rocks
control their weathering behaviour and reactivity. Major and trace element analyses and the effect of deterioration on the
physical properties of the limestones (unit weight, porosity and water absorption) have also been investigated. Studies on
the samples implies that weathering on the stone surface caused important variations on the physical characteristics of the
rock.
Received: 11 February 1998 · Accepted: 18 August 1998 相似文献
4.
Kurt Heinrichs 《Environmental Geology》2008,56(3-4):643-675
Studies of many years—combining in situ investigation and laboratory analysis—have provided comprehensive information on weathering damage on the rock-cut monuments in the ancient city of Petra in Jordan. These rock-cut monuments represent outstanding world heritage. Many hundred monuments were carved by the Nabataeans from bedrock about 2000 years ago. The awareness of increasing weathering damage on the monuments has resulted in international efforts towards their preservation. The damage diagnosis has addressed the complex mutual relationships between stone types, stone properties, monument exposure regimes, environmental influences, weathering phenomena, development and extent of weathering damage and weathering progression. The rocks were classified lithostratigraphically and petrographically. Results on weathering forms, weathering profiles and weathering products obtained from monument mapping, in situ measurements and laboratory studies revealed a complex diversity of weathering phemomena with respect to type and intensity. Damage categories and damage indices were used to create a reproducible quantitative rating of weathering damage. Detailed results on weathering forms allowed the characterization and quantification of weathering progression including weathering prognoses. Stone properties and states of weathering damage were jointly considered for the rating of the rocks’ susceptibility to weathering. The systematic evaluation of weathering damage and monument exposure regimes can enhance the assessment of weathering factors and processes. 相似文献
5.
The aim of the present article is to identify the influence of the pore morphology on the physical behaviour and durability
of natural stone. Fifteen sedimentary rocks commonly used in the cultural and architectural heritage of Aragon (Spain) were
characterized. The petrography, porous structure, fluid transport properties and durability of these rocks were analysed.
They were classified into two different groups according to the results of the different tests. For each of these groups the
physical behaviour was established. A principal components analysis was used in order to examine the correlation between pore
structure, hydric properties and durability. The results show that the percentage of pore throats <0.1 μm control the fluid
transport properties, have an important influence on stone durability, and can be used to predict resistance to salt decay
while the average pore size does not. Stones with a high percentage of pore throats <0.1 μm are less susceptible to salt decay
than stones with higher pore size if their pore network is characterized by high tortuosity and low connectivity. 相似文献
6.
İsmail İnce Ali Bozdağ M. Bahadır Tosunlar M. Ergün Hatır Mustafa Korkanç 《Environmental Earth Sciences》2018,77(11):420
Building stones have long been one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. Building stones used in historical monuments are deteriorated partly or completely depending on the environmental and atmospheric effects. In recent years, non-destructive test methods have been used to assess deterioration of building stones used in historical monuments. Gödene stone is one of the building stones being widely used in the historical buildings in the Konya region, Central Anatolia. The most deterioration effects are observed in the Ferit Pa?a Cistern among the historical structures built with Gödene stone in the region. The aim of this study is to assess the deteriorating effects in the street façade of the Ferit Pa?a Cistern via non-destructive testing methods (Schmidt hardness rebound value, P-wave velocity, humidity measurement and thermal imaging) and create maps of deteriorated features. Turkey’s historic places are integrated to Turkish culture, efforts are made to conserve heritage through rehabilitation. Therefore, this study will help developers and federal managers during the project planning stage by providing technical data. 相似文献
7.
Salt crystallisation is a major problem of deterioration in historic stone buildings, monuments and sculptures. The capillary rise of soil water is one of the primary sources of salts in stone structures, which evaporates leaving the salts behind. It has been noted that the spatial distribution profile of different species of salts crystallised in historic stone buildings is not homogeneous, i.e. different salts crystallise at different locations. The capillary transport and inhomogeneous spatial distribution of different salts in the porous building materials has been considered to be a result of solubility-dependent crystallisation; however, the factors responsible for this phenomenon are not clearly known. This paper aims to investigate the factors influencing the differential distribution of salts during capillary rise of soil water. In this study, the capillary transport of salts was simulated on two different sandstones—Locharbriggs, a Permo–Triassic, red sandstone and Stoke Hall, a Carboniferous, buff sandstone. The experiments were carried out under controlled environmental conditions to eliminate the possibility of evaporation-driven crystallisation of salts depending on their solubilities. The results indicate that fractionation or differential distribution of salts takes place even in the absence of evaporation and crystallisation. The sandstones exhibit properties like an ion exchange column, and ionic species present in the salt solution show differential distribution within the porous network of sandstone. 相似文献
8.
The extant remains of the Roman monuments of Tarragona, Spain are made of different types of Miocenic rocks from the quarries surrounding the city, which vary from calcarenite to bioclastic limestones, showing different degrees of dolomitization, depending on their diagenetic evolution. The decay of these monuments is highly dependent on the mineralogy and the fabric of the stone as well as on the environmental conditions to which the monument subjected. As a consequence, different forms of decay are observed on these monuments, namely, granular disintegration, differential erosion between sparitic and micritic areas of the rock, and development of black crust and orange patinas, some of them attributed to a sulfation process. A number of processes have been established as being responsible for the decay forms observed: sulfation on sheltered areas of the building in the urban environment; differential dilatation because of the NaCl of the marine spray that crystallizes inside the porosity; hydric and thermal expansion of the stone, both related to the amount and crystallinity of the clay minerals forming the rock matrix; and biocolonization on the stone surface. An empirical model is proposed to explain the decay forms studied in relation to these factors (rock and environment). 相似文献
9.
Gordon M. Walkden 《Geology Today》2017,33(2):71-80
British geology reveals many good looking rocks, both ‘soft’ and ‘hard’, some of which were once highly prized for their polished decorative uses. They were quarried, cut, shaped and finished in a locally‐based British decorative stone industry that flourished twice, first in the Middle Ages, based largely on Purbeck marble from Dorset and also alabaster from Derbyshire, and then again in the nineteenth century when diverse sources of coloured and textured stone were pursued to the far corners of the British Isles. Today only the finished products survive; the pillars, panels and pavement adorning some fine but dusty architecture, but the stones commonly languish unrecognized and unappreciated. This anonymity is quite out of line with the heritage status of their settings and it will take a bit more geological awareness to put that right. A recent project aimed at rediscovering just one regional category of British decorative stones, the Devonshire marbles, has revealed how diverse and extensively‐used the fuller range of British decorative stones actually is. Not only do they embellish buildings from the merely modest to some of our finest, they were latterly chosen, specified, designed and coordinated by some of our greatest architects. Much work needs to be done to recognize British decorative stones in architectural settings and to restore them to their proper place in our national heritage. It is hoped that this article will throw light on the task ahead. 相似文献
10.
G. Cultrone L. G. Russo C. Calabrò M. Uroševič A. Pezzino 《Environmental Geology》2008,54(6):1271-1281
Hyblean limestone of Oligo-Miocene age was widely used as a construction material in the architectural heritage of Eastern
Sicily (Italy). Among them, the so-called Pietra Bianca di Melilli (Melilli limestone) and Calcare di Siracusa (Syracuse limestone)
were prized for their attractive appearance, ease of quarrying, and workability. Syracuse limestone shows general weathering,
whereas Melilli limestone is better preserved, and only differential erosion or superficial exfoliation can be detected in
monuments. The cause of the different behavior of these two limestones was investigated from the petrographic and petrophysical
points of view. The saturation coefficient is higher in Melilli limestone, and ultrasound measurements indicate that it is
less compact than Syracuse limestone, so that Melilli limestone could deteriorate more easily than Syracuse limestone. However,
pore interconnections and the size of very small pores play the main role in the durability of both materials. The “irregularity”
of the Syracuse pore system and its greater number of micropores hinder water flow through the exterior, promote stress in
pore structure, and favor the development of scaling, as confirmed by salt crystallization tests. In Melilli limestone, the
low concentration of micropores and fast water evaporation allow solutions to reach the surface more easily, resulting in
less damaging efflorescence. 相似文献
11.
P. López-Arce R. Fort M. Gómez-Heras E. Pérez-Monserrat M. J. Varas-Muriel 《Environmental Earth Sciences》2011,63(7-8):1487-1509
El Paular Monastery (eleventh century) is one of the most important Carthusian monasteries in Spain and is highly affected by crystallisation of Mg-sulphates, together with chlorides and nitrates. Urgent remediation of the decay process is needed to guarantee the stability of the building materials from the cloister and to make their hallways suitable for the exhibition of an important collection of seventeenth century paintings. This paper aims to characterise the building materials, salts and their interaction to suggest preservation strategies to minimise the impact of salts both in the short and the long term. These strategies include architectural solutions (such as a ventilation system to avoid increasing dampness and hence the dissolution, mobilisation and crystallisation of salts), petrophysical-based solutions (i.e. exploiting the porosity differences between building materials and poultices to maximise salt reduction) and strategies based on the physicochemical behaviour of salts and relative humidity transfer through the stone (to determine the most suitable environmental conditions to prevent crystallisation of the most harmful salt species). This research represents both a practical and experimental exercise that is useful for conservation scientists and restorers involved in the field of preservation of monuments, and for environmental control to avoid salt crystallisation. 相似文献
12.
Elena Mercedes Perez-Monserrat Monica Alvarez de Buergo Miguel Gomez-Heras Maria Jose Varas Muriel Rafael Fort Gonzalez 《Environmental Earth Sciences》2013,69(4):1071-1084
The stone traditionally used to build cities contributes to their personality and attests to the geological substrate on which they stand. While stone decay in the built heritage can be attributed to a number of causes, anthropic activity has a particularly significant impact. The geomonumental routes project is one of the initiatives proposed in recent years for urban routes that convey geological fundamentals by observing the rocks present in heritage structures. Its innovative approach addresses traditional stone properties, original quarrying sites and mechanisms of decay. Madrid’s Royal Palace is a fine example of the use of traditional building stone in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. In the geomonumental route proposed, the building doubles as an in situ laboratory that affords an overview of the main petrological properties of the two traditional stones most commonly used in the city’s built heritage, the forms of decay they are subject and the factors underlying such alterations. This route constitutes a tool for showing the main petrological features and decay forms in traditional building stones found in urban heritage façades, with a special focus on anthropic impact, primarily air pollution and the use of conservation treatments that time has proven to be unsuitable. 相似文献
13.
Crystallisation of salts in the pores of stone is a major concern in the preservation of heritage buildings, monuments and sculptures, but the mechanism of transport and distribution of salts is still not properly understood. The fractionation and distribution of salts in the porous matrix has, in building material research, conventionally been attributed to the solubility and concentration of salts present in the groundwater. We propose another mechanism contributing to the control of the salt distribution based on the interaction of ions in the salt solution with the charged mineral phases within the stone. The transport of mixed salt solutions was studied in laboratory simulated flow-through experiments on two fluvial sandstones – a Permo-Triassic red bed sandstone and a Carboniferous sandstone, both from the UK. The experiments were carried out under non-evaporative conditions, eliminating the possibility of solubility-dependent crystallisation. The results indicate that the process of ion exchange significantly controls the transport of ions in the pores and leads to fractionation of solutes in the course of transport even in the absence of evaporation and crystallisation. The sandstones behave like a chromatographic column and retention of various ionic species is significantly controlled by ion exchange processes. A quantitative estimation of cation exchange capacity (CEC) indicates that sandstones with higher CEC have greater influence on retention and fractionation of salts in the course of capillary transport than those with lower CEC. Simple scoping calculations using a geochemical modelling code and the ion exchange properties based on those determined in the laboratory experiments, demonstrate that ion exchange can have a significant effect on mineral precipitation during evaporation. 相似文献
14.
Physical, chemical and biogenic weathering considerably threatens all historic stone monuments. Microorganisms, though inconspicuous, are key players of stone surface colonization and penetration. This study highlights eukaryotic microbial communities on dimension stone surfaces from two representative monuments of the “cultural landscape corridor” in the Saale–Unstrut area. The historical buildings were erected from local Triassic limestone and sandstone and are prone to various deteriorative mechanisms. Generally, trebouxiophyceaen algae and ascomycete fungi dominate among the latter dematiaceous fungi and lichen fungi are abundant. Inside the stone substratum, ascomycetes, mosses and even large soil organisms (tardigrades) are present. This may be taken as a hint for the formation of pores with large radii, which are “risk indicators” for progressive weathering and degradation of the rock matrix. 相似文献
15.
The Early Christian Munazio Ireneo cubicle in Cagliari (Sardinia) is carved into the rock and is one of the rare monuments of Sardinia belonging to Early Christian Age. It is 166 cm under the planking level and is a semi-confined chamber in which a gate allows exchange with the outside. In 1888, when it was discovered, it was completely painted, but over the years, it suffered a serious damage and all the paintings are nearly disappeared. Now the site shows a high moisture and a differential damage characterised by delamination, powdering, salt crystallisation and biological colonisation. The research offers a multidisciplinary approach to study the salt crystallisation damage, which is a phenomenon still not completely understood today. Studies and analyses highlight that different kinds of damage can be recognised. The cement mortar and the air pollution cause crystallisation of the sulphates. Constant capillary rising and the presence of water infiltration due to the rains, which travelled into the site from the vault, were detected during qualitative inspection. Although the microclimate did not change much in the site and the humidity was almost constant during the monitoring period, the variations in temperature allowed the phase transitions of sodium sulphate, especially in summer. The greatest damage of the porous stone is associated with the phase transitions and crystallisation inside the stone of sodium sulphate, one of the most harmful salts for porous materials because of its high crystallisation pressure. 相似文献
16.
This paper aims to assess the risk of natural and anthropogenic hazards for cultural heritage in Cyprus by integrating multi-temporal GIS and earth observation analysis, in the area of Paphos District. The work presented here attends to re-evaluate previous results from earth observations and GIS analysis and go a step forward targeting more reliable outcomes for cultural heritage management. The scope of the paper was to develop a more accurate methodology for risk assessment against natural and anthropogenic hazards (e.g., soil erosion; urban expansion), based on homogeneous clustering of the monuments under consideration. The accomplished assessment approach, being lopsided and generic, cannot be applied across the board and undistractedly for cultural heritage management of all types of monuments of the district. Instead, the proposed clustering of monuments based on a variety of parameters is taking into consideration characteristics of their immediate environment, resulting rational local-based outcomes more useful for monuments and sites safeguarding and for prevention measurements. For each one of the five clusters of monuments located in the Paphos District, an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method was followed in order to address the individual and unique characteristics of the monuments and sites within the same cluster area. Subsequently, the weight factors from these clusters were interpolated to the whole district, prior to the application of the overall AHP risk assessment. Ultimately, the results were compared with the overall AHP method applied for the entire Paphos District, indicating that the proposed methodology can be more accurate and realistic for the different groups of the monuments. 相似文献
17.
Summary Crust-derived xenoliths hosted by Miocene basaltic diatremes in the Hyblean Plateau (south-eastern Sicily, Italy) provide
new information regarding the nature of a portion of the central Mediterranean lower crust. These xenoliths can be divided
into three groups: gabbros (plagioclase + clinopyroxene + Fe–Ti oxides ± apatite ± amphibole ± Fe-rich green spinel), diorites
(An-poor plagioclase, clinopyroxene ± Fe–Ti oxides ± orthopyroxene) and mafic granulites (plagioclase + clinopyroxene + green
spinel ± orthopyroxene ± Fe–Ti oxides). Gabbros form the main subject of this paper. They represent cumulates whose igneous
texture has been locally obliterated by metamorphic recrystallization and shearing. They were permeated by Fe–Ti-rich melts
related to tholeiitic-type fractional crystallisation. Incompatible element ratios (Zr/Nb = 5–26; Y/Nb = 1.4–11) indicate
that these cumulate gabbros derived from MORB liquids. Late-stage and hydrothermal fluids caused diverse, sometimes important,
metasomatic trasformations. Petrographic and geochemical comparison with gabbroids from well-known geodynamic settings show
that the Hyblean lower crustal xenoliths were probably formed in an oceanic or oceanic-continent transition environment. 相似文献
18.
It is often necessary to locate the original quarry which supplied the stone for a particular historical building. This stones could be used for future restoration work and for testing in the laboratory (artificial aging tests, physical properties determination, control of the efficacy of conservation treatments, etc.). Generally, reviewing historical documentation gives information about the geographical setting of quarries and location of the stones in the monument, but this information needs to be proved by field and laboratory studies. The comparative study of stone from quarries and monuments should basically include the following: (1) mineralogical and petrographical studies; (2) the chemical analysis of major, minor and trace elements; (3)stable isotopes determinations; (4) physical properties of quarry materials and unweathered building stone (water absorption, ultrasound transmission velocity, porosity and porous system, density, bulk density, compressive strength, etc.). This methodology was applied to Málaga Cathedral stones represented in the main façade, towers, and the western zone of the terrace, which, according to historical literature, came from Almayate (Miocene–Pliocene limestones) and Cerro Coronado (Permotriassic sandstone) in Málaga. The conclusion of the comparative study carried out on quarries and building stones was consistent with the information available from the historical documentation. 相似文献
19.
Moisture in stone material is the key factor for all stone deterioration processes and also in weathering of cultural heritage. With additional presence of salts in the material the situation gets even more critical. While the properties of pure salts with moisture are well known, knowledge about the interaction of salt mixtures with moisture is still poor. In different approaches the reactions of salt-contaminated stone material on changing moisture were tested in the laboratory. Experiments with different solutions in the Na-Mg-SO4-NO3-H2O system revealed interesting new results on the moisture behaviour of salt-contaminated samples. Theoretical considerations and computer simulations are helpful to interpret the data obtained, but are not yet sufficient to explain the real processes acting on site at the monuments. More encouraging to this fact are complementary studies on visible efflorescences in the same salt system. It is shown how by experimental approaches the understanding on salt-induced stone deterioration is strongly complemented. 相似文献
20.
Lázaro Valentin Zuquette Janaina Barrios Palma Osni José Pejon 《Environmental Geology》2006,50(3):371-387
This study was carried out in the Córrego do Vaçununga basin constituted of eolic sandstones of Botucatu Formation and residual unconsolidated materials (>90%), considered the most important unconfined aquifer in Brazil, in the city of Luiz Antonio, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Laboratory and in situ tests were performed to characterize the unconsolidated materials in terms of basic physical properties, potential infiltration rate, suction and hydraulic conductivity. The results for infiltration and overland flow depths were obtained according to Morel-Seytoux and Khanji (Water Resour Res 10(4):795–800, 1976) and Chu (Water Resour Res 14(3):461–466, 1978) adaptation of the Green and Ampt [J Agr Sci 4(Part 1):1–24, 1911] model for steady and transient rainfalls, respectively. Rainfall data were collected from January of 2000 to December of 2002, and 12 scenarios were defined considering the intensity and durations. Rather than high homogeneity in terms of the texture of unconsolidated materials, the infiltration and overland flow ratio depends on the type of land use and associated management practices. The results showed that rainfall with high intensity and short duration do not produce high overland flow ratio as we have observed for transient scenarios with long duration and low intensities. 相似文献