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2.
Craig Stevens Brian Ward Cliff LawMatt Walkington 《Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography》2011,58(6):776-785
Vessel-based observations of the oceanic surface layer during the 14-day 2004 SAGE ocean fertilization experiment were conducted using ADCP, CTD and temperature microstructure in a frame of reference moving with a patch of injected SF6 tracer. During the experiment the mixed layer depth zmld ranged between 50 and 80 m, with several re-stratifying events that brought zmld up to less than 40 m. These re-stratifying events were not directly attributable to local surface-down development of stratification and were more likely associated with horizontal variation in density structure. Comparison between the CTD and a one-dimensional model confirmed that the SAGE experiment was governed by 3-d processes. A new method for estimating zmld was developed that incorporates a component that is proportional to density gradient. This highlighted the need for well-conditioned near-surface data which are not always available from vessel-based survey CTD profiles. A centred-displacement scale, Lc, equivalent to the Thorpe lengthscale, reached a maximum of 20 m, with the eddy-centroid located at around 40 m depth. Temperature gradient microstructure-derived estimates of the vertical turbulent eddy diffusivity of scalar (temperature) material yielded bin-averaged values around 10−3 m2 s−1 in the pycnocline rising to over 10−2 m2 s−1 higher in the surface layer. This suggests transport rates of nitrate and silicate at the base of the surface layer generate mixed layer increases of the order of 38 and 13 mmol/m2/day, respectively, during SAGE. However, the variability in measured vertical transport processes highlights the importance of transient events like wind mixing and horizontal intrusions. 相似文献
3.
海浪破碎对海洋上混合层中湍能量收支的影响 总被引：2，自引：1，他引：2
海浪破碎产生一向下输入的湍动能通量,在近海表处形成一湍流生成明显增加的次层,加强了海洋上混合层中的湍流垂向混合。为了研究海浪破碎对混合层中湍能量收支的影响,文中分析了海浪破碎对海洋上混合层中湍流生成的影响机制,采用垂向一维湍封闭混合模式,通过改变湍动能方程的上边界条件,引入了海浪破碎产生的湍动能通量,并分别对不同风速下海浪破碎的影响进行了数值研究,分析了混合层中湍能量收支的变化。当考虑海浪破碎影响时,近海表次层中的垂直扩散项和耗散项都有显著的增加,该次层中被耗散的湍动能占整个混合层中耗散的总的湍能量的92.0%,比无海浪破碎影响的结果增加了近1倍;由于平均流场切变减小,混合层中的湍流剪切生成减小了3.5%,形成一种存在于湍动能的耗散和垂直扩散之间的局部平衡关系。在该次层以下,局部平衡关系与壁层定律的结论一致,即湍动能的剪切生成与耗散相平衡。研究结果表明,海浪破碎在海表产生的湍动能通量影响了海洋上混合层中的各项湍能量收支间的局部平衡关系。 相似文献
4.
G. S. Golitsyn 《Izvestiya Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics》2010,46(1):6-13
The problems of wind-induced waves on the sea surface are considered. To this end, the empirical fetch laws that determine
variations in the basic periods and heights of waves in relation to their fetch are used. The relation between the fetch and
the physical time is found, as are the dependences of the basic characteristics of waves on the time of wind forcing. It is
found that about 5% of wind energy dissipated in the near-water air layer contributes to the growth of wave heights, i.e.
wave energy, although this quantity depends on the age of waves and the exponent in the fetch laws. With consideration for
estimates of the probability distribution functions for the wind over the world ocean [11], it is found that the rate of wind-energy
dissipation in the near-water air layer is on the order of 1 W/m2. The calculations of wind waves [19] for the world ocean for 2007 have made it possible to assess the mean characteristics
of the cycle of wave development and their seasonal variations. An analysis of these calculations [19] shows that about 20%
of wind energy is transferred to the water surface. The remaining amount (80%) of wind energy is spent on the generation of
turbulence in the near-water air layer. About 2%, i.e., one tenth of the energy transferred to water, is spent on turbulence
generation due to the instability of the vertical velocity profile of the Stokes drift current and on energy dissipation in
the surf zones. Of the remaining 18%, 5% is spent directly on wave growth and 13% is spent on the generation of turbulence
during wave breaking and on a small-scale spectral region. These annually and globally mean estimates have a seasonal cycle
with an amplitude on the order of 20% in absolute values but with a smaller amplitude in relative values. According to [19]
and to the results of this study, the annually mean height of waves is estimated as 2.7 m and their age is estimated as 1.17. 相似文献
5.
《Ocean Modelling》2009,26(3-4):154-171
Ocean surface mixing and drift are influenced by the mixed layer depth, buoyancy fluxes and currents below the mixed layer. Drift and mixing are also functions of the surface Stokes drift Uss, volume Stokes transport TS, a wave breaking height scale Hswg, and the flux of energy from waves to ocean turbulence Φoc. Here we describe a global database of these parameters, estimated from a well-validated numerical wave model, that uses traditional forms of the wave generation and dissipation parameterizations, and covers the years 2003–2007. Compared to previous studies, the present work has the advantage of being consistent with the known physical processes that regulate the wave field and the air–sea fluxes, and also consistent with a very large number of in situ and satellite observations of wave parameters. Consequently, some of our estimates differ significantly from previous estimates. In particular, we find that the mean global integral of Φoc is 68 TW, and the yearly mean value of TS is typically 10–30% of the Ekman transport, except in well-defined regions where it can reach 60%. We also have refined our previous estimates of Uss by using a better treatment of the high frequency part of the wave spectrum. In the open ocean, Uss ≃ 0.013U10, where U10 is the wind speed at 10 m height. 相似文献
6.
《Ocean Modelling》2008,20(1):35-60
The generalized Langrangian mean theory provides exact equations for general wave–turbulence–mean flow interactions in three dimensions. For practical applications, these equations must be closed by specifying the wave forcing terms. Here an approximate closure is obtained under the hypotheses of small surface slope, weak horizontal gradients of the water depth and mean current, and weak curvature of the mean current profile. These assumptions yield analytical expressions for the mean momentum and pressure forcing terms that can be expressed in terms of the wave spectrum. A vertical change of coordinate is then applied to obtain glm2z-RANS equations with non-divergent mass transport in cartesian coordinates. To lowest order, agreement is found with Eulerian mean theories, and the present approximation provides an explicit extension of known wave-averaged equations to short-scale variations of the wave field, and vertically varying currents only limited to weak or localized profile curvatures. Further, the underlying exact equations provide a natural framework for extensions to finite wave amplitudes and any realistic situation. The accuracy of the approximations is discussed using comparisons with exact numerical solutions for linear waves over arbitrary bottom slopes, for which the equations are still exact when properly accounting for partial standing waves. For finite amplitude waves it is found that the approximate solutions are probably accurate for ocean mixed layer modelling and shoaling waves, provided that an adequate turbulent closure is designed. However, for surf zone applications the approximations are expected to give only qualitative results due to the large influence of wave nonlinearity on the vertical profiles of wave forcing terms. 相似文献
7.
Some changes in the eddy mixing in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) are investigated with the use of the mesoscale RANS turbulence model. It is found that the behavior of parameters of the eddy turbulence mixing is in compliance with the recently obtained data of laboratory and atmospheric measurements. In particular, the flow Richardson number (Ri f ) during the transient flow to a strongly stable state can behave nonmonotonically, growing with the increasing gradient Richardson number (Ri g ) to the state of saturation at a certain gradient Richardson number (Ri g ? 1), which separates two different turbulent regimes: the regimes of strong mixing and weak mixing. An analysis of the energetics based on the balance equations of kinetic and potential turbulence energies shows, in particular, that the weak mixing (Ri g > 1) is quite capable of transferring momentum. This phenomenon can be explained not only by the fact that the flow is sustained by propagating internal waves, which effectively transfer momentum under strong stratification conditions, but also by the fact that turbulence permanently arises in the free atmosphere and in the deep ocean at Ri g ? 1. 相似文献
8.
Past studies have shown that there is a wave-enhanced, near-surface mixed-layer in which the dissipation rate is greater than
that derived from the “law of the wall”. In this study, turbulence in water columns under wind breaking waves is investigated
numerically and analytically. Improved estimations of dissipation rate are parameterized as surface source of turbulent kinetic
energy (TKE) for a more accurate modelling of vertical profile of velocity and TKE in the water column. The simulation results
have been compared with the experimental results obtained by Cheung and Street (1988) and Kitaigorodskii et al. (1983), with good agreement. The results show that the numerical full model can well simulate the near-surface wave-enhanced
layer and suggest that the vertical diffusive coefficients are highly empirical and related to the TKE diffusion, the shear
production and the dissipation. Analytical solutions of TKE are also derived for near surface layer and in deep water respectively.
Near the surface layer, the dissipation rate is assumed to be balanced by the TKE diffusion to obtain the analytical solution;
however, the balance between the dissipation and the shear production is applied at the deep layer. The analytical results
in various layers are compared with that of the full numerical model, which confirms that the wave-enhanced layer near the
surface is a diffusion-dominated region. The influence of the wave energy factor is also examined, which increases the surface
TKE flux with the wave development. Under this region, the water behavior transits to satisfy the classic law of the wall.
Below the transition depth, the shear production dominantly balances the dissipation.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
9.
A simple k–ε turbulence closure is introduced which has no stability functions but instead a Richardson number-dependent turbulent Prandtl number. Its free parameters are determined in a comparison with microstructure observations from a stratified and sheared tidal estuary and laboratory measurements. The closure is able to simulate observed turbulent dissipation rates (ε) and turbulent length scales (lth) in regions of strong mean shear and small gradient Richardson number (Rg) to within factors of 2–3. It fails in regions of small shear and large Rg, presumably because of the dominance of internal wave-driven mixing. Additional simulations with a k–ε closure with stability functions taken from Canuto et al. [Canuto, V.M., Howard, A., Cheng, Y., Dubovikov, M.S., 2001. Ocean turbulence I: one-point closure model. Momentum and heat vertical diffusivities. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 31, 1413–1426] and with the closure of Baumert and Peters [Baumert, H., Peters, H., 2004. Turbulence closure, steady state, and collapse into waves. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 34, 505–512] show poor performance. Establishing a valid 1:1 comparison of simulated and observed ε and lth requires nudging the model velocity and density toward observed values because free model integrations quickly diverge from the observations. Steady state gradient Richardson numbers are constrained to a range of 0.18–0.25, while flux Richardson numbers are constrained to the range of 0.1–0.22. The closure output is rather insensitive to such parameter variations. The simulations are sensitive, however, to the treatment of the observed velocity and density used to nudge the model. Good closure performance requires averaging the measured tidal flow over about an hour, a time scale for which conventional numerical models of estuarine circulations should be able to match observed shears. In the closure simulations the TKE balance stays close to a production–dissipation balance. The time rate of change and vertical diffusion of TKE are small, of the same order of magnitude, and vary in magnitude relative to each other systematically across the water column. 相似文献
10.
Takeshi Matsuno Seiichi Kanari Chikashi Kobayashi Toshiyuki Hibiya 《Journal of Oceanography》1994,50(4):437-448
The strength of the vertical mixing in the bottom mixed layer near the continental shelf break in the East China Sea was directly measured with the Micro-Scale Profiler (MSP). It has been shown that there is no significant statistical relation between the turbulent energy dissipation and the degree of the stratificationN
2. It seems that the vigorous turbulence occurs not constantly but intermittently in the bottom mixed layer so that a large variation of is found depending on the time. In contrast to , the coefficient of the vertical eddy diffusivityK
z is mostly determined byN such thatK
z is large in the bottom mixed layer and small in the thermocline. Large value ofK
z in the bottom mixed layer is also found in the time series ofK
z estimated in terms of Richardson number calculated from the data obtained with electromagnetic current meters. The value ofK
z more than 10 cm2s–1 frequently occur in the layer of 20–25 m thick just above the bottom. 相似文献
11.
Walter Munk 《Progress in Oceanography》1997,40(1-4)
Topex/Poseidon (T/P) altimetry has reopened the problem of how tidal dissipation is to be allocated. There is now general agreement of a M2 dissipation by 2.5 Terawatts (1 TW = 1012 W), based on four quite separate astronomic observational programs. Allowing for the bodily tide dissipation of 0.1 TW leaves 2.4 TW for ocean dissipation. The traditional disposal sites since
(1920) have been in the turbulent bottom boundary layer (BBL) of marginal seas, and the modern estimate of about 2.1 TW is in this tradition (but the distribution among the shallow seas has changed radically from time to time). Independent estimates of energy flux into the marginal seas are not in good agreement with the BBL estimates.T/P altimetry has contributed to the tidal problem in two important ways. The assimilation of global altimetry into Laplace tidal solutions has led to accurate representations of the global tides, as evidenced by the very close agreement between the astronomic measurements and the computed 2.4 TW working of the Moon on the global ocean. Second, the detection by
and
(1996) of small surface manifestation of internal tides radiating away from the Hawaiian chain has led to global estimates of 0.2 to 0.4 TW of conversion of surface tides to internal tides. Measurements of ocean microstructure yields 0.2 TW of global dissipation by pelagic turbulence (away from topography). We propose that pelagic turbulence is maintained by topographic scattering of barotropic into baroclinic tidal energy, via internal tides and internal waves. Previous estimates by
(1974);
, (1982)) of this conversion along 150,000 km of continental coastlines gave a negligible 0.02 TW; evidently the important conversion takes place along mid-ocean ridges.The maintenance of the abyssal global stratification requires a much larger expenditure of power. 2 TW versus 0.2 TW. This is usually attributed to wind forcing. If tidal power is to play a significant role here, then the BBL estimates need to be reduced. The challenge is to estimate dissipation from the energy flux divergence in the T/P adjusted tidal models, without prior assumptions concerning the dissipation processes. 相似文献
12.
The mean available potential energy released by baroclinic instability into the meso-scale eddy field has to be dissipated in some way and Tandon and Garrett [Tandon, A., Garrett, C., 1996. On a recent parameterization of mesoscale eddies. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 26 (3), 406–416] suggested that this dissipation could ultimately involve irreversible mixing of buoyancy by molecular processes at the small-scale end of the turbulence cascade. We revisit this idea and argue that the presence of dissipation within the thermocline automatically requires that a component of the eddy flux associated with meso-scale eddies must be associated with irreversible mixing of buoyancy within the thermocline. We offer a parameterisation of the implied diapycnal diffusivity based on (i) the dissipation rate for eddy kinetic energy given by the meso-scale eddy closure of Eden and Greatbatch [Eden, C., Greatbatch, R.J., 2008. Towards a meso-scale eddy closure. Ocean Modell. 20, 223–239.] and (ii) a fixed mixing efficiency. The implied eddy-induced diapycnal diffusivity (κ) is implemented in a coarse resolution model of the North Atlantic. In contrast to the vertical diffusivity given by a standard vertical mixing scheme, large lateral inhomogeneities can be found for κ in the interior of the ocean. In general, κ is large, i.e. up to o(10) cm2/s, near the western boundaries and almost vanishing in the interior of the ocean. 相似文献
13.
S. A. Kitaigorodskii 《Izvestiya Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics》2009,45(3):372-379
New experimental data that make it possible to explain and predict the observed variability of turbulent-energy dissipation in the upper ocean are discussed. For this purpose, the dependence of the energy dissipation rate of breaking wind waves on their propagation velocity (see [1]) is used. The turbulent-energy dissipation values obtained earlier in [2, 3] by a direct method are compared to the results of radar measurements of individual breaking events presented in [1]. On the basis of this comparison, a strong dependence of the turbulent-energy dissipation value on the stage of wind-wave development, which is characterized by the ratio U a /c p (U a is the wind speed and c p is the phase speed of the peak of the wind-wave spectrum) is confirmed. This dependence was found earlier purely empirically. Moreover, it is shown that the theoretically obtained dependence (c p /U a )4, does not contradict the available empirical data. The results of this study opens possibilities for scientifically substantiated calculations of greenhouse-gas exchange (specifically, CO2 exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere). 相似文献
14.
Direct measurements of eddy diffusivities for momentum K m and heat K h by Doppler radar and by a radio acoustic sounding system in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere were used to examine the applicability of three Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) schemes of stratified turbulence in the environment: the E — ? turbulence scheme modified for stratified flows, the algebraic two-parameter E — ? Reynolds-stress scheme, and the three-parameter \(E - \varepsilon - \overline {\theta ^2 } \) turbulence scheme. All turbulence parameters-the turbulent kinetic energy (E), the dissipation rate (?), and vertical profiles of potential temperature (atmospheric stability) and mean wind velocity-were derived from direct measurements for all three turbulence schemes. It is shown that the profile of the vertical diffusivity of momentum (K m ) obtained from the three-parameter RANS turbulence scheme agrees well with its directly measured analog. The profile of K m calculated by the two-parameter turbulence schemes fits measurements rather qualitatively. 相似文献
15.
The effects of spatial variations of the thickness diffusivity (K) appropriate to the parameterisation of [Gent, P.R. and McWilliams, J.C., 1990. Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20, 150–155.] are assessed in a coarse resolution global ocean general circulation model. Simulations using three closures yielding different lateral and/or vertical variations in K are compared with a simulation using a constant value. Although the effects of changing K are in general small and all simulations remain biased compared to observations, we find systematic local sensitivities of the simulated circulation on K. In particular, increasing K near the surface in the tropical ocean lifts the depth of the equatorial thermocline, the strength of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current decreases while the subpolar and subtropical gyre transports in the North Atlantic increase by increasing K locally. We also find that the lateral and vertical structure of K given by a recently proposed closure reduces the negative temperature biases in the western North Atlantic by adjusting the pathways of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Current to a more realistic position. 相似文献
16.
A Wind stress–Current Coupled System (WCCS) consisting of the HYbrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM) and an improved wind stress algorithm based on Donelan et al. [Donelan, W.M., Drennan, Katsaros, K.B., 1997. The air–sea momentum flux in mixed wind sea and swell conditions. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27, 2087–2099] is developed by using the Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF). The WCCS is applied to the global ocean to study the interactions between the wind stress and the ocean surface currents. In this study, the ocean surface current velocity is taken into consideration in the wind stress calculation and air–sea heat flux calculation. The wind stress that contains the effect of ocean surface current velocity will be used to force the HYCOM. The results indicate that the ocean surface velocity exerts an important influence on the wind stress, which, in turn, significantly affects the global ocean surface currents, air–sea heat fluxes, and the thickness of ocean surface boundary layer. Comparison with the TOGA TAO buoy data, the sea surface temperature from the wind–current coupled simulation showed noticeable improvement over the stand-alone HYCOM simulation. 相似文献
17.
《Ocean Modelling》2008,20(3):223-239
A turbulence closure for the effect of mesoscale eddies in non-eddy-resolving ocean models is proposed. The closure consists of a prognostic equation for the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) that is integrated as an additional model equation, and a diagnostic relation for an eddy length scale (L), which is given by the minimum of Rhines scale and Rossby radius. Combining EKE and L using a standard mixing length assumption gives a diffusivity (K), corresponding to the thickness diffusivity in the [Gent, P.R., McWilliams, J.C. 1990. Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 20, 150–155] parameterisation. Assuming downgradient mixing of potential vorticity with identical diffusivity shows how K is related to horizontal and vertical mixing processes in the horizontal momentum equation, and also enables us to parameterise the source of EKE related to eddy momentum fluxes.The mesoscale eddy closure is evaluated using synthetic data from two different eddy-resolving models covering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Southern Ocean, respectively. The diagnosis shows that the mixing length assumption together with the definition of eddy length scales is valid within certain limitations. Furthermore, implementation of the closure in non-eddy-resolving models of the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean shows consistently that the closure has skill at reproducing the results of the eddy-resolving model versions in terms of EKE and K. 相似文献
18.
A differential model of the upper turbulent layer in the ocean is considered. A closed system of equations includes equations of motion, balance, and dissipation of kinetic turbulence energy. Boundary conditions at the surface are determined using a solution of the atmospheric problem taking into account the interaction between the two media. The formulated algorithm allows for a relationship between turbulent energy dissipation and flux and the parameters of wind disturbance. The vertical profiles of turbulence and drift current characteristics are presented as well as parameters of the ocean-atmosphere interaction for various values of impulse jump within the limits of the wave layer with waves collapsing and not collapsing.UDK 551.456.152 相似文献
19.
Interannual-to-decadal variations in the subtropical countercurrent (STCC) and low potential vorticity (PV) water and their
relations in the North Pacific Ocean are investigated on the basis of a 60-year-long hindcast integration of an eddy-resolving
ocean general circulation model. Although vertically coherent variations are dominant for STCC interannual variability, a
correlation analysis shows that an intensified STCC vertical shear accompanies lower PV than usual to the north on 25.5- to
26.1-σθ isopycnal surfaces, and intensified meridional density gradient in subsurface layers, consistent with Kubokawa’s theory (J
Phys Oceanogr 29:1314–1333, 1999). The low-PV signals appear at least 2 years before peaks of STCC, propagating southwestward from the subduction region. 相似文献
20.
Effect of Langmuir circulation (LC) on upper ocean mixing is investigated by a two-way wave-current coupled model. Themodel is coupled of the ocean circulationmodel ROMS (regional ocean modeling system) to the surface wave model SWAN (simulating waves nearshore) via the model-coupling toolkit. The LC already certified its importance by many one-dimensional (1D) research andmechanismanalysis work. This work focuses on inducing LC’s effect in a three-dimensional (3-D) model and applying it to real field modeling. In ROMS, theMellor-Yamada turbulence closuremixing scheme is modified by including LC’s effect. The SWAN imports bathymetry, free surface and current information fromthe ROMS while exports significant wave parameters to the ROMS for Stokes wave computing every 6 s. This coupled model is applied to the South China Sea (SCS) during September 2008 cruise. The results show that LC increasing turbulence and deepening mixed layer depth (MLD) at order of O (10 m) in most of the areas, especially in the north part of SCS where most of our measurements operated. The coupled model further includes wave breaking which will bringsmore energy into water. When LC works together with wave breaking,more energy is transferred into deep layer and accelerates the MLD deepening. In the north part of the SCS, their effects aremore obvious. This is consistent with big wind event in the area of the Zhujiang River Delta. The shallow water depth as another reasonmakes themeasy to influence the oceanmixing as well. 相似文献