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1.
The continuous provisioning of forest ecosystem goods and services (EGS) is of considerable interest to society. To provide insights on how much EGS provision will change with a changing climate and which factors will influence this change the most, we simulated forest stands on six climatically different sites in Central Europe under several scenarios of species diversity, management, and climate change. We evaluated the influence of these factors on the provision of a range of tree-based EGS, represented by harvested basal area, total biomass, stand diversity, and productivity. The most influential factor was species diversity, with diverse forest stands showing a lower sensitivity to climate change than monocultures. Management mainly influenced biomass, with the most intensively managed stands retaining more of their original biomass than others. All three climate-change scenarios yielded very similar results. We showed that (1) only few factor combinations perform worse under climate-change conditions than others, (2) diversity aspects are important for adaptive management measures, but for some indicators, management may be more important than diversity, and (3) at locations subject to increasing drought, the future provision of EGS may decrease regardless of the factor combination. This quantitative evaluation of the influence of different factors on changes in the provision of forest EGS with climate change represents an important step towards the design of more focused adaptation strategies and highlights key factors that should be considered in simulation studies under climate change.  相似文献   

2.
We added certain aspects of species-specific phenology, and of local frost regimes to a standard invididual-based patch model of forest stand dynamics, which we used to explore the possible consequences of four climate-change scenarios in eight distinct forest regions in British Columbia, Canada. According to model projections, lowland temperate coastal forests will be severely stressed because forest tree species will no longer have their winter-chilling requirements met. High-elevation coastal forests may either remain stable or decrease in productivity, while interior subalpine forests may eventually resemble those now found in the coastal mountains. Southern interior forests are likely to persist relatively unchanged, while boreal and sub-boreal forests of the northern interior may become dominated by Douglas-fir and western larch, rather than by spruce and pine as at present. The rate of change in forest composition may be very high in some cases. Changes under the four climate-change scenarios generally vary in magnitude but not in direction. This exercise illustrates that different forest types might respond to a changing climate for different reasons, and at different rates.  相似文献   

3.
Tropical rainforest plays an important role in the global carbon cycle, accounting for a large part of global net primary productivity and contributing to CO2 sequestration. The objective of this work is to simulate potential changes in the rainforest biome in Central America subject to anthropogenic climate change under two emissions scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. The use of a dynamic vegetation model and climate change scenarios is an approach to investigate, assess or anticipate how biomes respond to climate change. In this work, the Inland dynamic vegetation model was driven by the Eta regional climate model simulations. These simulations accept boundary conditions from HadGEM2-ES runs in the two emissions scenarios. The possible consequences of regional climate change on vegetation properties, such as biomass, net primary production and changes in forest extent and distribution, were investigated. The Inland model projections show reductions in tropical forest cover in both scenarios. The reduction of tropical forest cover is greater in RCP8.5. The Inland model projects biomass increases where tropical forest remains due to the CO2 fertilization effect. The future distribution of predominant vegetation shows that some areas of tropical rainforest in Central America are replaced by savannah and grassland in RCP4.5. Inland projections under both RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 show a net primary productivity reduction trend due to significant tropical forest reduction, temperature increase, precipitation reduction and dry spell increments, despite the biomass increases in some areas of Costa Rica and Panama. This study may provide guidance to adaptation studies of climate change impacts on the tropical rainforests in Central America.  相似文献   

4.
We estimated how the possible changes in wind climate and state of the forest due to climate change may affect the probability of exceeding critical wind speeds expected to cause wind damage within a forest management unit located in Southern Sweden. The topography of the management unit was relatively gentle and the forests were dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). We incorporated a model relating the site index (SI) to the site productivity into the forest projection model FTM. Using estimated changes in the net primary production (NPP) due to climate change and assuming a relative change in NPP equal to a relative change in the site productivity, we simulated possible future states of the forest under gradual adjustment of SI in response to climate change. We estimated changes in NPP by combining the boreal-adapted BIOMASS model with four regional climate change scenarios calculated using the RCAO model for the period 2071–2100 and two control period scenarios for the period 1961–1990. The modified WINDA model was used to calculate the probability of wind damage for individual forest stands in simulated future states of the forest. The climate change scenarios used represent non-extreme projections on a 100-year time scale in terms of global mean warming. A 15–40% increase in NPP was estimated to result from climate change until the period 2071–2100. Increasing sensitivity of the forest to wind was indicated when the management rules of today were applied. A greater proportion of the calculated change in probability of wind damage was due to changes in wind climate than to changes in the sensitivity of the forest to wind. While regional climate scenarios based on the HadAM3H general circulation model (GCM) indicated no change (SRES A2 emission scenario) or a slightly reduced (SRES B2 emission scenario) probability of wind damage, scenarios based on the ECHAM4/OPYC3 GCM indicated increased probability of wind damage. The assessment should, however, be reviewed as the simulation of forest growth under climate change as well as climate change scenarios are refined.  相似文献   

5.
Liu  Tingxiang  Zhang  Shuwen  Yu  Lingxue  Bu  Kun  Yang  Jiuchun  Chang  Liping 《Theoretical and Applied Climatology》2017,130(3-4):971-978
Currently, US forests constitute a large carbon sink, comprising about 9 % of the global terrestrial carbon sink. Wildfire is the most significant disturbance influencing carbon dynamics in US forests. Our objective is to estimate impacts of climate change, CO2 concentration, and nitrogen deposition on the future net biome productivity (NBP) of US forests until the end of twenty-first century under a range of disturbance conditions. We designate three forest disturbance scenarios under one future climate scenario to evaluate factor impacts for the future period (2011–2100): (1) no wildfires occur but forests continue to age (Saging), (2) no wildfires occur and forest ages are fixed in 2010 (Sfixed_nodis), and (3) wildfires occur according to a historical pattern, consequently changing forest age (Sdis_age_change). Results indicate that US forests remain a large carbon sink in the late twenty-first century under the Sfixed_nodis scenario; however, they become a carbon source under the Saging and Sdis_age_change scenarios. During the period of 2011 to 2100, climate is projected to have a small direct effect on NBP, while atmospheric CO2 concentration and nitrogen deposition have large positive effects on NBP regardless of the future climate and disturbance scenarios. Meanwhile, responses to past disturbances under the Sfixed_nodis scenario increase NBP regardless of the future climate scenarios. Although disturbance effects on NBP under the Saging and Sdis_age_change scenarios decrease with time, both scenarios experience an increase in NBP prior to the 2050s and then a decrease in NBP until the end of the twenty-first century. This study indicates that there is potential to increase or at least maintain the carbon sink of conterminous US forests at the current level if future wildfires are reduced and age structures are maintained at a productive mix. The effects of CO2 on the future carbon sink may overwhelm effects of other factors at the end of the twenty-first century. Although our model in conjunction with multiple disturbance scenarios may not reflect the true conditions of future forests, it provides a range of potential conditions as well as a useful guide to both current and future forest carbon management.  相似文献   

6.
Forest gap models have been used widely in the study of forest dynamics, including predicting long-term succession patterns and assessing the potential impacts of climate change on forest structure and composition. However, little effort is devoted to predict forest dynamics in the high elevation areas, although they have the sensitive response to global climate change. In the present study, based on a modified height-diameter function, we developed a new version (FAREAST-GFSM) of the forest patch model, FAREAST for simulating the changes of subalpine forests. The observed data from the Gongga Mt. Alpine Station were also used to test model precision. With the improved performance of FAREAST-GFSM, we explored the impact of three warming scenarios on subalpine forest on the eastern Tibetan plateau within a 100-year period. The study result indicates that the effects of climate change were evident on subalpine forests in the high elevation areas. The response of different species to the warming climate might eventually transform the subalpine Abies fabric forest into Betula utilis forest similar to that which is now widely distributed in the eastern Tibetan Plateau mountainous areas with the relatively lower elevation. Subalpine forests could move to higher and colder areas, which are currently tundra.  相似文献   

7.
India has 64 Mha under forests, of which 72% are tropical moist deciduous, dry deciduous, and wet evergreen forest. Projected changes in temperature, rainfall, and soil moisture are considered at regional level for India under two scenarios, the first involving greenhouse gas forcing, and the second, sulphate aerosols. Under the former model, a general increase in temperature and rainfall in all regions is indicated. This could potentially result in increased productivity, and shift forest type boundaries along attitudinal and rainfall gradients, with species migrating from lower to higher elevations and the drier forest types being transformed to moister types. The aerosol model, however, indicates a more modest increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation in central and northern India, which would considerably stress the forests in these regions.Although India seems to have stabilized the area under forest since 1980, anthropogenic stresses such as livestock pressure, biomass demand for fuelwood and timber, and the fragmented nature of forests will all affect forest response to changing climate. Thus, forest area is unlikely to expand even if climatically suitable, and will probably decrease in parts of northeast India due to extensive shifting cultivation and deforestation. A number of general adaptation measures to climate change are listed.  相似文献   

8.
Three bioclimate variables (growing degree days after budburst, temperature of the coldest month and a moisture index) are used in a model (STASH) to predict potential range limits of north European tree species. CO2-induced climate warming scenarios cause major changes in these limits. The dominant conifers of the mixed conifer/northern hardwoods zone, Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris, retreat from the south and west while Fagus sylvatica and other temperate hardwoods spread to the north. A gap model (FORSKA 2) is used to simulate the associated transient responses of a forest reserve within this zone. In both dry Pinus- and moist Picea- dominated forest communities, Picea continues to increase while Pinus sooner or later declines. These changes are continuing successional (non-climatic) responses to the cessation of disturbance 150 years ago. Climate warming speeds up the succession, and allows Fagus to establish and increase. The eventual decline of Picea however is delayed due to the persistence of old-growth stands. Picea forests subject to continuing disturbance show a more rapid shift to dominance by Fagus and other temperate hardwoods. Delayed immigration of new species, including Fagus, would favour earlysuccessional species such as Betula pendula and Quercus spp. in a forest with reduced biomass and diversity. The results emphasise the complex and sometimes counter-intuitive nature of transient responses, and the importance of considering disturbance history and potential migration rates when predicting the impacts of rapid climate change on forests.  相似文献   

9.
The forest model ForClim was used to evaluate the applicability of gap models in complex topography when the climatic input data is provided by a global database of 0.5° resolution. The analysis was based on 12 grid cells along an altitudinal gradient in the European Alps. Forest dynamics were studied both under current climate as well as under four prescribed 2 × CO2 scenarios of climatic change obtained from General Circulation Models, which allowed to assess the sensitivity of mountainous forests to climatic change.Under current climate, ForClim produces plausible patterns of species composition in space and time, although the results for single grid cells sometimes are not representative of reality due to the limited precision of the climatic input data.Under the scenarios of climatic change, three responses of the vegetation are observed, i.e., afforestation, gradual changes of the species composition, and dieback of today's forest. In some cases widely differing species compositions are obtained depending on the climate scenario used, suggesting that mountainous forests are quite sensitive to climatic change. Some of the new forests have analogs on the modern landscape, but in other cases non-analog communities are formed, pointing at the importance of the individualistic response of species to climate.The applicability of gap models on a regular grid in a complex topography is discussed. It is concluded that for their application on a continental scale, it would be desirable to replace the species in the models by plant functional types. It is suggested that simulation studies like the present one must not be interpreted as predictions of the future fate of forests, but as means to assess their sensitivity to climatic change.  相似文献   

10.
Comparing the Performance of Forest gap Models in North America   总被引：6，自引：0，他引：6  
Forest gap models have a long history in the study of forest dynamics, including predicting long-term succession patterns and assessing the potential impacts of climate change and air pollution on forest structure and composition. In most applications, existing models are adapted for the specific question at hand and little effort is devoted to evaluating alternative formulations for key processes, although this has the potential to significantly influence model behavior. In the present study, we explore the implications of alternative formulations for selected ecological processes via the comparison of several gap models. Baseline predictions of forest biomass, composition and size structure generated by several gap models are compared to each other and to measured data at boreal and temperate sites in North America. The models ForClim and LINKAGES v2.0 were compared based on simulations of a temperate forest site in Tennessee, whereas FORSKA-2V, BOREALIS and ForClim were compared at four boreal forest sites in central and eastern Canada. Results for present-day conditions were evaluated on their success in predicting forest cover, species composition, total biomass and stand density, and allocation of biomass among species. In addition, the sensitivity of each model to climatic changes was investigated using a suite of six climate change scenarios involving temperature and precipitation. In the temperate forest simulations, both ForClim and LINKAGES v2.0 predicted mixed mesophytic forests dominated by oak species, which is expected for this region of Tennessee. The models differed in their predictions of species composition as well as with respect to the simulated rates of succession. Simulated forest dynamics under the changed climates were qualitatively similar between the two models, although aboveground biomass and species composition in ForClim was more sensitive to drought than in LINKAGES v2.0. Under a warmer climate, the modeled effects of temperature on tree growth in LINKAGES v2.0 led to the unrealistic loss of several key species. In the boreal forest simulations, ForClim predicted significant forest growth at only the most mesic site, and failed to predict a realistic species composition. In contrast, FORSKA-2V and BOREALIS were successful in simulating forest cover, general species composition, and biomass at most sites. In the climate change scenarios, ForClim was highly sensitive, whereas the other two models exhibited sensitivity only at the drier central Canadian sites. Although the studied sites differ strongly with respect to both the climatic regime and the set of dominating species, a unifying feature emerged from these simulation exercises. The major differences in model behavior were brought about by differences in the internal representations of the seasonal water balance, and they point to an important limitation in some gap model formulations for assessing climate change impacts.  相似文献   

11.
Temperature warming and the increased frequency of climatic anomalies are expected to trigger bark beetle outbreaks with potential severe consequences on forest ecosystems. We characterized the combined effects of climatic factors and density-dependent feedbacks on forest damage caused by Ips typographus (L.), one of the most destructive pests of European spruce forests, and tested whether climate modified the interannual variation in the altitudinal outbreak range of the species. We analyzed a 16-year time-series from the European Alps of timber loss in Picea abies Karsten forests due to I. typographus attacks and used a discrete population model and an information theoretic approach to compare multiple competing hypotheses. The occurrence of dry summers combined with warm temperatures appeared as the main abiotic triggers of severity of outbreaks. We also found an endogenous negative feedback with a 2-year lag suggesting a potential important role of natural enemies. Forest damage per hectare averaged 7-fold higher where spruce was planted in sites warmer than those within its historical climatic range. Dry summers, but not temperature, was related to upward shifts in the altitudinal outbreak range. Considering the potential increased susceptibility of spruce forests to insect outbreaks due to climate change, there is growing value in mitigating these effects through sustainable forest management, which includes avoiding the promotion of spruce outside its historical climatic range.  相似文献   

12.
The degree of general applicability across Europe currently achieved with several forest succession models is assessed, data needs and steps for further model development are identified and the role physiology based models can play in this process is evaluated. To this end, six forest succession models (DISCFORM, ForClim, FORSKA-M, GUESS, PICUS v1.2, SIERRA) are applied to simulate stand structure and species composition at 5 European pristine forest sites in different climatic regions. The models are initialized with site-specific soil information and driven with climate data from nearby weather stations. Predicted species composition and stand structure are compared to inventory data. Similarity and dissimilarity in the model results under current climatic conditions as well as the predicted responses to six climate change scenarios are discussed. All models produce good results in the prediction of the right tree functional types. In about half the cases, the dominating species are predicted correctly under the current climate. Where deviations occur, they often represent a shift of the species spectrum towards more drought tolerant species. Results for climate change scenarios indicate temperature driven changes in the alpine elevational vegetation belts at humid sites and a high sensitivity of forest composition and biomass of boreal and temperate deciduous forests to changes in precipitation as mediated by summer drought. Restricted generality of the models is found insofar as models originally developed for alpine conditions clearly perform better at alpine sites than at boreal sites, and vice versa. We conclude that both the models and the input data need to be improved before the models can be used for a robust evaluation of forest dynamics under climate change scenarios across Europe. Recommendations for model improvements, further model testing and the use of physiology based succession models are made.  相似文献   

13.
Future levels of water stress depend on changes in several key factors including population, climate-change driven water availability, and a carbon dioxide physiological-forcing effect on evaporation and run-off. In this study we use an ensemble of the HadCM3 climate model forced with a range of future emissions scenarios combined with a simple water scarcity index to assess the contribution of each of these factors to the projected population living in water stress over the 21st century.Population change only scenarios increase the number of people living in water stress such that at peak global population 65% of people experience some level of water stress. Globally, the climate model ensemble projects an increase in water availability which partially offsets some of the impacts of population growth. The result is 1 billion fewer people living in water stress by the 2080s under the high end emissions scenarios than if population increased in the absence of climate change.This study highlights the important role plant-physiological forcing has on future water resources. The effect of rising CO2 is to increase available water and to reduce the number of people living in high water stress by around 200 million compared to climate only projections. This effect is of a similar order of magnitude to climate change.  相似文献   

14.
We studied forest land-use and carbon storage over a 40-year period in the Middle Zavolgie region of Russia, an area of approximately 287,000 km2. Data were obtained from state forest inventories for 1958 and 1995. In spite of the effects of disturbances and uncontrolled harvesting between 1958 and 1990, the forests of the Middle Zavolgie Region remained a considerable pool of ecosystem carbon (C). Over the study period the total area of forest lands decreased by approximately 2%, while the growing stock increased by 8%. There were significant changes in the age class structure of these forest ecosystems toward a larger proportion of young and middle aged stands. The total amount of carbon in the stem biomass of forests in all regions of Middle Zavolgie increased over the 40-year period and was equal to about 307 TgC in 1995. A regional approach for estimating the C dynamics of forest ecosystems in response to land use in the Middle Zavolgie region can contribute to understanding the potential role of Russian forests in C sequestration. This information is important for implementation of international conventions concerning national carbon budgets and reducing the potential negative impacts of climate change.  相似文献   

15.
Human activities have altered the distribution and quality of terrestrial ecosystems. Future demands for goods and services from terrestrial ecosystems will occur in a world experiencing human-induced climate change. In this study, we characterize the range in response of unmanaged ecosystems in the conterminous U.S. to 12 climate change scenarios. We obtained this response by simulating the climatically induced shifts in net primary productivity and geographical distribution of major biomes in the conterminous U.S. with the BIOME 3 model. BIOME 3 captured well the potential distribution of major biomes across the U.S. under baseline (current) climate. BIOME 3 also reproduced the general trends of observed net primary production (NPP) acceptably. The NPP projections were reasonable for forests, but not for grasslands where the simulated values were always greater than those observed. Changes in NPP would be most severe under the BMRC climate change scenario in which severe changes in regional temperatures are projected. Under the UIUC and UIUC + Sulfate scenarios, NPP generally increases, especially in the West where increases in precipitation are projected to be greatest. A CO2-fertilization effect either amplified increases or alleviated losses in modeled NPP. Changes in NPP were also associated with changes in the geographic distribution of major biomes. Temperate/boreal mixed forests would cover less land in the U.S. under most of the climate change scenarios examined. Conversely, the temperate conifer and temperate deciduous forests would increase in areal extent under the UIUC and UIUC + Sulfate scenarios. The Arid Shrubland/Steppe would spread significantly across the southwest U.S. under the BMRC scenario. A map overlay of the simulated regions that would lose or gain capacity to produce corn and wheat on top of the projected distribution of natural ecosystems under the BMRC and UIUC scenarios (Global mean temperature increase of +2.5 °C, no CO2 effect) helped identify areas where natural and managed ecosystems could contract or expand. The methods and models employed here are useful in identifying; (a) the range in response of unmanaged ecosystem in the U.S. to climate change and (b) the areas of the country where, for a particular scenario of climate change, land cover changes would be most likely.  相似文献   

16.
Considered are the contribution of managed forests in the Russian Federation to the climate change softening and the forecast of their carbon-depositing potential in the period till 2050 under different scenarios of the forest management. The sink of CO2 to managed forests is estimated using the flow balance method. The CBM-CFS3 model worked out in the Canadian Forestry Service is used for predicting the carbon budget. It is found out that managed forests absorb 473.8 Mt of CO2 per year. The carbon sink is caused by the reduction of the volume of the forest use and by the regeneration of cutover stands of previous years. Depending on the conditions of the forest use, by 2020 the CO2 sink to managed forests will amount to 466–632 Mt/year and will be able to compensate from 21 to 29% of industrial emissions of greenhouse gases. The carbon absorption by managed forests will decrease to 105–235 Mt/year by 2050. To maintain and increase the carbon-depositing potential of managed forests, the Russian Federation needs the development of the system of purposeful activities on strengthening the protection against forest fires and on the intensification of forest reproduction.  相似文献   

17.
The potential impacts of CO2-induced climate change on terrestrial carbon storage was estimated using the Holdridge Life-Zone Classification and four climate change scenarios derived from general circulation models. Carbon values were assigned to life-zones and their associated soils from published studies. All four scenarios suggest an increase in area occupied by forests although details of predicted patterns vary among the scenarios. There is a poleward shift of the forested zones, with an increase in the areal extent of tropical forests and a shift of the boreal forest zone into the region currently occupied by tundra. Terrestrial carbon storage increased from 0.4% (8.5 Gt) to 9.5% (180.5 Gt) above estimates for present conditions. These changes represent a potential reduction of 4 to 85 ppm on elevated atmospheric CO2 levels.  相似文献   

18.
Economics of climate change mitigation forest policy scenarios for Ukraine   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Abstract

This article reveals the contribution of woodland expansion in Ukraine to climate change mitigation policies. The opportunities for climate change mitigation of three policy scenarios: (1) carbon storage in forests, (2) carbon storage and additional wood-for-fuel substitution, and (3) carbon storage with additional sink policy for wood products, are investigated by using a simulation technique, in combination with cost—benefit analysis. The article concludes that the Ukraine's forests and their expansion offer a low-cost opportunity for carbon sequestration. Important factors that influence the results are the discount rate and the time horizon considered in the models. The findings provide evidence that the storage climate change mitigation forest policy scenario is most viable for the country, under the assumptions considered in this research.  相似文献   

19.
The biomass growth and nutrient cycling model ForSVA (forest-soil-vegetation-atmosphere model) is used to analyze potential changes in nutrient cycling (Ca, Mg, K, N, S) and forest biomass production in response to four climate-change scenarios. The analysis is done for an old-growth hardwood stand within the Turkey Lakes watershed north of Lake Superior, Ontario. With ForSVA, any effects due to species interactions, competition, and resulting species shifts are not addressed explicitly. Instead, the calculations are based on functional relationships that primarily respond to soil and climate conditions in general, and to structural changes within the forest itself. The simulations cover a period of about 200 years, and suggest that a principal change in annual pattern of soil moisture is to be expected for the UKMO climate scenario, and that this scenario will likely induce a major change of vegetation covertype resulting from major changes in seasonal soil moisture conditions and a general lack of snow during winter. In contrast, the OSU, GISS and GFDL scenarios should not cause a principal change in forest type, but the soil will be somewhat drier than what is currently the case. However, increased precipitation rates and/or air temperatures during summer and spring should, in combination, increase actual evapotranspiration rates, and such increases should increase net primary production. For example, calculations with GFDL suggest that cumulative wood biomass at the Turkey Lakes site can be expected to increase by 25%. Foliage biomass and fine root production can be expected to increase by 70% from current conditions. It is assumed that within-tree allocation of photosynthate is not affected by climate.  相似文献   

20.
Jian Ni 《Climatic change》2002,55(1-2):61-75
The BIOME3 model was used to simulate the distribution patterns and carbon storage of the horizontal, zonal boreal forests in northeast and northwest China using a mapping system for vegetation patterns combined with carbon density estimates from vegetation and soils. The BIOME3 prediction is in reasonable good agreement with the potential distribution of Chinese boreal forests. The effects of changing atmospheric CO2 concentration had a nonlinear effect on boreal forest distribution, with 3.5–10.8% reduced areas for both increasing and decreasing CO2. In contrast, the increased climate together with and without changing CO2 concentration showed dramatic changes in geographic patterns, with 70% reduction in area and disappearance of almost boreal forests in northeast China. The baseline carbon storage in boreal forests of China is 4.60 PgC (median estimate) based on the vegetation area of actual boreal forest distribution. If taking the large area of agricultural crops into account, the median value of potential carbon storage is 6.92 PgC. The increasing (340–500 ppmv) and decreasing CO2 concentration (340–200 ppmv) led to decrease of carbon storage, 0.33 PgC and 1.01 PgC respectively compared to BIOME3 potential prediction under present climate and CO2 conditions. Both climate change alone and climate change with CO2 enrichment (340–500 ppmv) reduced largely the carbon stored in vegetation and soils by ca. 6.5 PgC. The effect of climate change is more significant than the direct physiological effect of CO2 concentration on the boreal forests of China, showing a large reduction in both distribution area and carbon storage.  相似文献   

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