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1.
The discovery and large-scale exploration of unconventional oil/gas resources since 1980s have been considered as the most important advancement in the history of petroleum geology;that has not only changed the balance of supply and demand in the global energy market,but also improved our understanding of the formation mechanisms and distribution characteristics of oil/gas reservoirs.However,what is the difference of conventional and unconventional resources and why they always related to each other in petroliferous basins is not clear.As the differences and correlations between unconventional and conventional resources are complex challenging issues and very critical for resources assessment and hydrocarbon exploration,this paper focused on studying the relationship of formations and distributions among different oil/gas reservoirs.Drilling results of 12,237 exploratory wells in 6 representative petroliferous basins of China and distribution characteristics for 52,926 oil/gas accumulations over the world were applied to clarify the formation conditions and genetic relations of different oil/gas reservoirs in a petroliferous basin,and then to establish a unified model to address the differences and correlations of conventional and unconventional reservoirs.In this model,conventional reservoirs formed in free hydrocarbon dynamic field with high porosity and permeability located above the boundary of hydrocarbon buoyancy-driven accumulation depth limit.Unconventional tight reservoirs formed in confined hydrocarbon dynamic field with low porosity and permeability located between hydrocarbon buoyancy-driven accumulation depth limit and hydrocarbon accumulation depth limit.Shale oil/gas reservoirs formed in the bound hydrocarbon dynamic field with low porosity and ultra-low permeability within the source rock layers.More than 75%of proved reserves around the world are discovered in the free hydrocarbon dynamic field,which is estimated to contain only 10%of originally generated hydrocarbons.Most of undiscovered resources distributed in the confined hydrocarbon dynamic field and the bound hydrocarbon dynamic field,which contains 90%of original generated hydrocarbons,implying a reasonable and promising area for future hydrocarbon explorations.The buried depths of hydrocarbon dynamic fields become shallow with the increase of heat flow,and the remaining oil/gas resources mainly exist in the deep area of“cold basin”with low geothermal gradient.Lithology changing in the hydrocarbon dynamic field causes local anomalies in the oil/gas dynamic mechanism,leading to the local formation of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs in the free hydrocarbon dynamic field or the occurrence of oil/gas enrichment sweet points with high porosity and permeability in the confined hydrocarbon dynamic field.The tectonic movements destroy the medium conditions and oil/gas components,which leads to the transformation of conventional oil/gas reservoirs formed in free hydrocarbon dynamic field to unconventional ones or unconventional ones formed in confined and bound hydrocarbon dynamic fields to conventional ones.  相似文献   

2.
The geologic production of abiotic organic compounds has been the subject of increasing scientific attention due to their use in the global carbon flux balance, by chemosynthetic biological communities, and for energy resources. Extensive analysis of methane(CH4) and other organics in diverse geologic settings, combined with thermodynamic modelings and laboratory simulations, have yielded insights into the distribution of specific abiotic organic molecules on Earth and the favorable c...  相似文献   

3.
Comparing compositions of the fluid inclusions in volcanic rocks to the contents and isotopes of the gases in corresponding volcanic reservoirs using microthermometry, Raman microspectroscopy and mass spectrum analysis, we found that: (1) up to 82 mole% methane exists in the primary inclusions hosted in the reservoir volcanic rocks; (2) high CH4 inclusions recognized in the volcanic rocks correspond to CH4-bcaring CO2 reservoirs that are rich in helium and with a high ^3He/^4He ratio and which show reversed order of 813C in alkane; (3) in gas reservoirs of such abiotic methane (〉80%) and a mix of CH4 and CO2, the enclosed content of CH4 in the volcanic inclusions is usually below 42 mole%, and the reversed order of δ^13C in alkane is sometimes irregular in the corresponding gas pools; (4) a glassy inclusion with a homogeneous temperature over 900℃ also contains a small portion of CH4 although predominantly CO2. This affinity between gas pool and content of inclusion in the same volcanic reservoirs demonstrates that magma-originated gases, both CH4 and CO2, have contributed significantly to the corresponding gas pools and that the assumed hydrocarbon budget of the bulk earth might be much larger than conventionally supposed.  相似文献   

4.
The static flux chamber method was applied to study natural emissions of methane to the atmosphere in the Luntai fault region of Yakela Condensed Oil/Gas Field in the Tarim Basin, Xinjiang Municipality, northwestern China. Using an online method, which couples together a gas chromatography/high-temperature conversion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/MS), 13^C/12^C ratios of methane in flux chambers were measured and showed that methane gases are liable to migrate from deep oil/gas reservoirs to the surface through fault regions and that a part of the migrated methane, which remains unoxidized can be emitted into the atmosphere. Methane emission rates were found to be highest in the mornings, lowest in the afternoons and then increase gradually in the evenings. Methane emission rates varied dramatically in different locations in the fault region. The highest methane emission rate was 10.96 mg/m^2·d, the lowest 4.38 mg/m^2, and the average 7.55 mg/ m^2·d. The 13^C/12^C ratios of the methane in the flux chambers became heavier as the enclosed methane concentrations increased gradually, which reveals that methane released from the fault region might come from thermogenic methane of the deep condensed oil/gas reservoir.  相似文献   

5.
Abstract: This study is based on the sedimentation conditions, organic geochemistry, storage spaces, physical properties, lithology and gas content of the shale gas reservoirs in Longmaxi Formation of the Jiaoshiba area and the gas accumulation mode is summarized and then compared with that in northern America. The shale gas reservoirs in the Longmaxi Formation in Jiaoshiba have good geological conditions, great thickness of quality shales, high organic content, high gas content, good physical properties, suitable depth, good preservation conditions and good reservoir types. The quality shales at the bottom of the deep shelf are the main target interval for shale gas exploration and development. Shale gas in the Longmaxi Formation has undergone three main reservoiring stages: the early stage of hydrocarbon generation and compaction when shale gas reservoirs were first formed; the middle stage of deep burial and large-scale hydrocarbon generation, which caused the enrichment of reservoirs with shale gas; the late stage of uplift, erosion and fracture development when shale gas reservoirs were finally formed.  相似文献   

6.
The age-accumulation effect of 40Ar in hydrocarbon source rocks was discussed in accordance with the decay law of radioactive elements. In terms of the mean values of 40Ar/36Ar, the old Sinian gas reservoirs (mean values of 40Ar/36Ar: 7009) were definitely distinguished from the Permian gas reservoirs (mean values of 40Ar/36Ar: 1017) in Weiyuan, Sichuan Province, and the gas source of the Permian gas reservoir (mean values of 40Ar/36Ar: 5222) in well Wei-7 with the Weiyuan structure is defined as the Sinian system. Based on the values of 40Ar/36Ar, the coal-type gases (The source rocks are of the C-P system; mean values of 40Ar/36Ar: 1125) are definitely distinguished from the oil-type gases (The source rocks are of the Tertiary system; mean values of 40Ar/36Ar: 590) in the Tertiary reservoirs of the Zhongyuan Oilfield. Besides, 40Ar/36Ar values also have a positive effect on the oil-source correlation of oil reservoirs in ancient hidden mountains. According to the crust-mantle interchange information reflected by 3He/4He values, petroliferous provinces in China can be divided into three major tectonic regions. (1) The eastern active region: The crust-mantle volatile matter exchanges actively, and the 3He/4He values are mainly around 10-6, partly around 10-7. (2) The central stable region: The 3He/4He values are all around 10-8. (3) The western sub-stable region: The 3He/4He values are mainly around 10-8, and around 10-7 on the edges of the basins. Helium contents of some gas wells in China’s eastern petroliferous region reach the industrial abundance (He≈0.05%–0.1%), the 3He/4He values reach 10-6, and the equivalent values for the mantle-source components in helium gas can reach 30%–50%. As viewed from this, a new type of crust-mantle composite helium resources has been proposed. Geneses of some CO2 gas reservoirs in the east of China and some issues concerning mantle-source methane were discussed in the light of the helium and carbon isotopes of CO2 and CH4 in natural gases. In the discussion on helium isotopic characteristics of inclusions in the reservoirs, it was discovered that the 3He/4He values are close to those in natural gases. That is to say, this phenomenon is related to regional tectonism. The 3He/4He, CO2/3He and CH4/3He data were used to discuss the tectonic activities of fault zones in a certain number of regions in China.  相似文献   

7.
Almost all the oil and gas reservoirs developed in marine sedimentary strata of China have undergone processes of multi-phase reservoir formation and later modification. The irregular reservoirs are classified into three types as the Naxi, Tahe and Renqiu ones, increasing successively in the development degree of karstificated pores and fissures and the connection degree of independent reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the unity in the fluid feature, pressure and oil-gas-water interface also increases successively from the Naxi to the Renqiu type. The main body of Ordovician reservoirs of the Tahe Oilfield in the Tarim Basin is a network pool rather than a stratified, massive, stratigraphically-unconformed or weathering-crust one. The fluid nature of oil, gas and water, the interface positions and the pressures, as well as the dynamic conditions of fluids within the reservoirs during the production are all different from those in stratified or massive oil and gas reservoirs. Carbonates in the Akekule upli  相似文献   

8.
Almost all the oil and gas reservoirs developed in marine sedimentary strata of China have undergone processes of multi-phase reservoir formation and later modification. The irregular reservoirs are classified into three types as the Naxi, Tahe and Renqiu ones, increasing successively in the development degree of karstificated pores and fissures and the connection degree of independent reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the unity in the fluid feature, pressure and oil-gas-water interface also increases successively from the Naxi to the Renqiu type. The main body of Ordovician reservoirs of the Tahe Oilfield in the Tarim Basin is a network pool rather than a stratified, massive, stratigraphically-unconformed or weathering-crust one. The fluid nature of oil, gas and water, the interface positions and the pressures, as well as the dynamic conditions of fluids within the reservoirs during the production are all different from those in stratified or massive oil and gas reservoirs. Carbonates in the Akekule upli  相似文献   

9.
Almost all the oil and gas reservoirs developed in marine sedimentary strata of China have undergone processes of multi-phase reservoir formation and later modification. The irregular reservoirs are classified into three types as the Naxi, Tahe and Renqiu ones, increasing successively in the development degree of karstificated pores and fissures and the connection degree of independent reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the unity in the fluid feature, pressure and oil-gaswater interface also increases successively from the Naxi to the Renqiu type. The main body of Ordovician reservoirs of the Tahe Oilfield in the Tarim Basin is a network pool rather than a stratified, massive, stratigraphically-unconformed or weathering-crust one. The fluid nature of oil, gas and water, the interface positions and the pressures, as well as the dynamic conditions of fluids within the reservoirs during the production are all different from those in stratified or massive oil and gas reservoirs. Carbonates in the Akekule uplift and the Tahe Oilfield are assemblages of various types of reservoirs, which have an overall oH-bearing potential and obvious uneven distribution. Testing and producing tests are the major means to evaluate this type of reservoirs and acid fracturing improvement is a key link in petroleum exploration and development.  相似文献   

10.
Damming is a common anthropogenic intervention along the course of rivers, which is defined as "artificial-lake effect", both in China and across the world. Today as many as 48000 dams and/or reservoirs are in operation in the Changjiang River (Yangtze River) drainage area, and more are being constructed. While damming is well known to affect riverbome nutrient loads, and thus the riverine ecosystems owing to removal of carbon fixation, and removal of particles in reservoir sediments, there is limited information on the detailed early diagenesis of sediments in reservoirs including the regeneration processes of nutrients deposited in sediments and exchange flux across the sediment-water interface, which is important for mass balance of riverbome nutrients. In the present study, two large-size reservoirs, Wujiangdu Reservoir (WJDR) and Dongfeng Reservoir (DFR), located on the main steam of the Wujiang River and with uniformity hydrography and discrepancy biogeochemical activity (e. g. primary production), were selected for a comparative study on the detailed processes of nutrient regeneration. Water, pore water and sediment were sampled from these two reservoirs and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), NH4^+, NO3^-, PO4^3-, dissolved silica (DSi) in the overlying water and pore water, and total organic matter in sediments were determined. The results of correlation analysis suggested that in these two reservoirs, processes of nutrient regeneration near the sediment-water interface were significantly different. As a result of rapid decomposition of algae-derived "labile" organic matter in upper sediments, nutrient regeneration processes and upward fluxes in WJDR are dramatically stronger than those of DFR. NH4^+ upward flux from sediment in WJDR was about 17 times higher than that in DFR. PO4^3- flux in WJDR is about 13 times above that in DFR. DOC flux in WJDR is larger that in DFR by 5 times, and DSi by 1 time.  相似文献   

11.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S167498711200031X   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
Upper Paleozoic coal measures in the Ordos Basin consist of dark mudstone and coal beds and are important source rocks for gas generation.Gas accumulations include coal-bed methane(CBM), tight gas and conventional gas in different structural areas.CBM accumulations are mainly distributed in the marginal area of the Ordos Basin,and are estimated at 3.5×1012 m3.Tight gas accumulations exist in the middle part of the Yishan Slope area,previously regarded as the basin-centered gas system and now considered as stratigraphic lithologic gas reservoirs.This paper reviews the characteristics of tight gas accumulations:poor physical properties(porosity < 8%,permeability < 0.85×10-3μm2),abnormal pressure and the absence of well-defined gas water contacts.CBM is a self-generation and selfreservoir, while gas derived from coal measures migrates only for a short distance to accumulate in a tight reservoir and is termed near-generation and near-reservoir.Both CBM and tight gas systems require source rocks with a strong gas generation ability that extends together over wide area.However,the producing area of the two systems may be significantly different.  相似文献   

12.
The Panguan Syncline contains abundant coal resources,which may be a potential source of coalbed methane.In order to evaluate the coalbed methane production potential in this area,we investigated the pore-fracture system of coalbed methane reservoirs,and analyzed the gas sorption and seepage capacities by using various analytical methods,including scanning electron microscopy(SEM),optical microscopy,mercury-injection test,low-temperature N2 isotherm adsorption/desorption analyses,lowfield nuclear magnetic resonance and methane isothermal adsorption measurements.The results show that the samples of the coal reservoirs in the Panguan Syncline have moderate gas sorption capacity.However, the coals in the study area have favorable seepage capacities,and are conductive for the coalbed methane production.The physical properties of the coalbed methane reservoirs in the Panguan Syncline are generally controlled by coal metamorphism:the low rank coal usually has low methane sorption capacity and its pore and microfractures are poorly developed;while the medium rank coal has better methane sorption capacity,and its seepage pores and microfractures are well developed,which are sufficient for the coalbed methane’s gathering and exploration.Therefore,the medium rank coals in the Panguan Syncline are the most prospective targets for the coalbed methane exploration and production.  相似文献   

13.
Abstract: Volcanic rocks are distributed widely in China, which are important exploration targets. By analyzing many discovered volcanic hydrocarbon reservoirs all over the world, the authors summarized the geologic characteristics of the formation of volcanic hydrocarbon reservoirs in China, and gave further exploration directions and advices. (1) There are mainly Carboniferous-Permian, Jurassic-Cretaceous, Paleogene-Neogene volcanic rocks in oil- and gas-bearing basins in China, which are mainly distributed in the Junggar Basin, Songliao Basin, Bohai Bay Basin, etc. There are mainly intermediate rocks and acidic rocks in east China, and intermediate rocks and basic rocks in west China. They primarily develop in intracontinental rift settings and island arc environments. (2) Pore-fissure reservoirs are distributed widely in basins, which are volcanic rocks mainly in explosive and effusive facies. (3) Volcanic hydrocarbon reservoirs are chiefly near-source lithostratigraphic hydrocarbon reservoirs, and the oil and gas accumulation is predominantly controlled by lithotypes, faults and structural positions. (4) Deep-seated oil and gas reservoirs in the Songliao Basin and Carboniferous volcanic hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Junggar Basin are potential giant volcanic gas provinces, the volcanic hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Bohai Bay Basin and Santanghu Basin are favorable for oil and gas reserves increase, and volcanic rocks in the Turpan Basin, Sichuan Basin, Tarim Basin have exploration potentiality. (5) The technology series of oil and gas exploration in volcanic rocks have been preliminarily formed.  相似文献   

14.
Recently,a large-scale Ordovician oil and gas pool has been discovered in Xinken,north of the Tarim Basin,and it has strongly heterogeneous reservoirs and complicated fluid distribution.Through analyzing oil,gas and water samples collected from this area,in combination of field production and testing data,this study reveals that the Xinken oil pool contains dominantly normal oil characterized by low viscosity,low sulphur,and high wax.It has a low content of natural gas,which presents typical characteristics of wet gas and is oil-associated gas.Oil-gas correlation shows that the oil was from the Middle-Upper Ordovician source rocks and the charge and accumulation of oil and gas took place in the Late Hercynian Period.Controlled by paleogeomorphology,sedimentary facies,ancient karstification,faults,and other factors in the Caledonian Period,the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs are dominated by dissolved pores,cavities and fractures.The reservoir body of fractures and cavities is distributed in the shape of strip and laminate along faults and excellent reservoirs are mostly in the range of 70–100 m below the top of the Yijianfang Formation.As a whole,the Xinken oil pool is a fracture-cavity pool controlled by interbedded karst reservoirs and is a complex composed of stacked karst fractures and cavities of various sizes.It contains oil in large areas horizontally,which is quasi-laminated in distribution,and the accumulation of oil and gas is controlled by the distribution and development degree of the Ordovician carbonate reservoirs.The study shows that this area has abundant resources and a great exploration potential for oil and gas.  相似文献   

15.
16.
The Chinese landmass, as a composite region, consists of multiple small continental blocks, such as Sino-Korea, Yangtze, Tarim, etc., and orogenic belts. Because of its distinctive tectonosedimentary evolution, China’s oil/gas-bearing regions differ remarkably from that elsewhere in the world. For instance, in comparison to the Middle East oil/gas-bearing regions which are characterized by Mesozoic-Cenozoic marine oil/gas-bearing beds, early oil and gas discoveries in China are distributed mainly in Mesozoic-Cenozoic continental sedimentary basins. Generation of oil from terrestrial organic matter, or terrestrial oil generation, and the formation of large oil/gas fields in continental sedimentary basins were previously the major characteristics of petroleum geology of China. However, in the past 20 years, a series of major oil and gas discoveries from marine strata have been made. Marine oil/gas fields in China are mainly distributed in the Tarim, Sichuan, and Ordos basins, which are tectonically stable and covered with Mesozoic-Cenozoic deposits. In these basins, hydrocarbon-bearing strata are of old age and the oil/gas fields are commonly deeply-buried. Cumulatively, 995 oil/gas fields have been found so far, making China the fourth largest oil-producing country and the sixth largest gas-producing country in the world. In terms of petroleum and natural gas geology, theories of hydrocarbon generation from continental strata, such as terrestrial oil generation and coal-generated hydrocarbons, etc., have been established. Significant progress has been made in research on the sequence stratigraphy of continental strata, formation mechanisms of ultra-deep clastic reservoirs, and hydrocarbon accumulation in the continental subtle reservoir. Regarding research on the marine petroleum geology of China, with respect to the major characteristics, such as deeply-buried reservoirs, old strata, and multiple phases of transformation, important advances have been made, in areas such as the multiple-elements of hydrocarbon supply, formation of reservoirs jointly controlled by deposition, tectonic activities, and diagenetic fluid-rock reactions, and oil/gas reservoirs formed through superimposed multi-stage hydrocarbon accumulation. As more and more unconventional hydrocarbon resources are discovered, unconventional oil and gas reservoirs are under study by Chinese petroleum geologists, who endeavor to come up with new discoveries on their formation mechanisms.  相似文献   

17.
18.
The Lower Triassic Jialingjiang Formation reservoirs are distributed widely in the East Sichuan Basin, which are composed mainly of fractured reservoirs. However, natural gas with high concentration of H2S, ranging from 4% to 7%, was discovered in the Wolonghe Gas pool consisting primarily of porous reservoirs, while the other over 20 fractured gas reservoirs have comparatively low, tiny and even no H2S within natural gases. Researches have proved the H2S of the above reservoirs are all from the TSR origin. Most of the Jialingjiang Formation natural gases are mainly generated from Lower Permian carbonate rocks, the Wolonghe gas pool's natural gases are from the Upper Permian Longtan Formation, and the natural gases of the Huangcaoxia and Fuchengzhai gas pools are all from Lower Silurian mudstone. The formation of H2S is controlled by the characteristics and temperature of reservoirs, and is not necessarily related with gas sources. The Jialingjiang Formation in East Sichuan is buried deeply and its reservoir temperature has ever attained the condition of the TSR reaction. Due to poor reservoir potential, most of the gas pools do not have enough room for hydrocarbon reaction except for the Wolonghe gas pool, and thus natural gases with high H2S concentration are difficult to be generated abundantly. The south part of East Sichuan did not generate natural gases with high H2S concentration because the reservoir was buried relatively shallow, and did not suffer high temperature. Hence, while predicting the distribution of H2S, the characteristics and temperature of reservoirs are the necessary factors to be considerd besides the existence of anhydrite.  相似文献   

19.
The exploration targets in the Kuqa Depression at present are mainly structure traps in Cretaceous-Tertiary. Due to the complexity of mountain distribution and reservoir forming conditions, the exploration of Jurassic in the eastern Kuqa Depression has been in a state of semi-stagnation since the discovery of the Yinan-2 gas reservoir. According to the concept and theory of “continuous petroleum reservoirs” and the re-analysis of the forming conditions of the Yinan-2 gas reservoir and regional natural gas in the eastern Kuqa Depression, it is believed that the deep Jurassic has good natural gas accumulation conditions as well as geological conditions for forming continuous tight gas reservoirs. The boundary of the Yinan-2 gas reservoir is not controlled by a structural spillpoint. The downdip part of the structure is dominated by gas, while the hanging wall of the fault is filled by water and forming obvious inverted gas and water. The gas reservoir has the normal temperature and ultra-high pressure which formed in the near source or inner-source. All of these characteristics indicate that the Yinan-2 gas reservoir is different from conventional gas reservoirs. The deep Jurassic in the eastern Kuqa Depression has multisets of source-reservoir-cap assemblages, which comprise interbedded sandstones and mudstones. These assemblages are characterized by a self-generation, self-preserving and self-coverage model. Reservoir sandstones and coal measure mudstones are interbedded with each other at a large scale. As the source rocks, Triassic-Jurassic coal measure mudstones distribute continuously at a large scale and can generate and expel hydrocarbon. Source rocks contact intimately with the overlying sandstone reservoirs. During the late stage of hydrocarbon expulsion, natural gas charged continuously and directly into the neighboring reservoirs. Petroleum migrated mainly in a vertical direction over short distances. With ultra-high pressure and strong charging intensity, natural gas accumulated continuously. Reservoirs are dominated by sandstones of braided delta facies. The sand bodies distribute continuously horizontal. With low porosity and low permeability, the reservoirs are featured by strong heterogeneity. It is hypothesized that the sandstones of the interior depression tend to be relatively tight with increasing depth and structure stress weakness. Thus, it is predicted that continuous tight gas reservoirs of ultra-high pressure may exist in the deep formations of the eastern and even the whole Kuqa Depression. So, it is worth evaluating the exploration potential.  相似文献   

20.
Source-Contacting Gas: Accumulation Mechanism and Distribution in China   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
Source-contacting gas, which is also called basin-center gas, deep basin gas, is the tightsand gas accumulation contacting closely to its source rocks. Having different accumulation mechanisms from conventional gas reservoirs that are formed by replacement way, the typical source-contacting gas reservoirs are formed by piston-typed migration forward way. Source-contacting gas accumulations exhibit a series of distinctly mechanic characteristics. According to the valid combination of these characteristics, the estimation for the type of discovered gas reservoirs or distributions of source-contacting gas reservoirs can be forecasted. The source-contacting gas is special for having no edge water or bottom water for gas and complicated gas-water relationships, which emphasizes the intimate association of reservoir rocks with source rocks, which is called the root of the gas reservoir. There are many basins having the mechanic conditions for source-contacting gas accumulations in China, which can be divided into three regions. Most of the basins with favorable accumulation conditions are located mainly in the central and western China. According to the present data, basins having source-contacting gas accumulations in China can be divided into three types, accumulation conditions and configuration relationships are the best in type A basins and they are the larger basins in central China. Type B basins with plain accumulation conditions exist primarily in eastern China and also the basins in western China. Accumulation conditions and exploration futures are worse in type C basins, which refer mainly to the small basins in southern China and China Sea basins. Main source-contacting gas basins in China are thoroughly discussed in this paper and the distribution patterns of source-contacting gas in five huge basins are discussed and forecasted.  相似文献   

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